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A BOOK OF INSTRUCTION FOR EVERY FARMER 
AND HORTICULTURIST. 



THE NEW FAEMER'S GUIDE: 



SHOWING Br 




EXPERIMENTS OF THE TRIAL FARMS IN EUROPE, 

THAT WITH A JUDICIOUS APPLICATION OF 

CHEMICAL FERTILIZEKS, 

THE YIELD OF THE PRmCIPAL AGRICULTUEAL CROPS MAY 
BE DOUBLED OR TREBLED ; 

ALSO GIYINQ 

SIMPLE AND EASY JVIETHODS 

FOR THE 

NITRIFICATION OF THE SOIL 



MATHIAS SCHKOEDER 

*, iS74 ^ , 

NEW yoek: 

BAKER & GODWIN, PRINTERS, 

No. 25 Pakk Row. 



/^p 



^1^ Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, 

By MATHIAS SCHROEDER, 
In the OfBce of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



O 



PREFACE 



TuE following pages are submitted to the attention of 
American farmers as a compendium cf the latest and most 
reliable information obtained from the experiments and 
trials made bj European agriculturists. The opinions* of 
many of the ablest and most intelligent writers are given, 
not with a view of unduly exalting the merits of chemical 
fertilizers, bttt simply with the intention of showing how 
these fertilizers may, with the exercise of proper judgment 
and care in their manufacture and application, become of 
the greatest value in increasing the productiveness of the 
soil. 

There has been much misunderstanding as to the rela- 
tive value and excellences of farm-yard manures and chem- 
ical fertilizers. I do not advocate the extreme views of 
Mr. George Yille (from whose works I have quoted) as to 
the comparative uselessness of farm-yard manure, although, 
at the same time, I should not wish to be understood as un- 
dervaluing the general excellence of the writings of that 
gentleman. 

My object is rather to hold the balance fairly between 
the two kinds of manure, to explain the active qualities of 
each, and point out the ingredients which must always be 
present in manures in order that a favorable result be 
attained. 

In this way I seek to convince the American farmer that, 
in a great majority of cases, it will be greatly to his ad van- 



4 PREFACE. 

tage to use the fertilizers, if they are properly manufactured 
from pure materials.' 

I have also thrown out hints upon a variety of topics, 
which will be found of some importance to agriculturists. 
More especially do I direct attention to the interesting 
questions connected with a discussion of the nitrification of 
the soil — a matter that has recently obtained a good deal 
of notice, but which needs to be much better understood by 
farmers generally. 

As a practical and theoretical agriculturist for a num^ 
ber' of years, I feel anxious that the discussions introduced 
in these pages shall receive general attention ; and with 
that view, I invite the co-operation of members of Farmers' 
Clubs and other kindred associations in the drssemination 
of the information they contain, which I have endeav- 
ored to present in such a form as shall be readily under-, 
stood, and be easily applied to practical use in the improve-, 
ment of our systems of cultivation of the soil. 

Mathias Schkoeder. 



CONTENTS. 



PAOB 

Preface 3-4 

Experiments at the French " School of Manures." — Lecture by George 

Yille Y_20 

Explanation of Terms. — Vegetable and Animal Kingdoms 21-22 

Composition of Chemical Substances 23 

Elements required in a Soil to produce Great Fertility 2-4-28 

Effects of Various Kinds of Manure Explained, — Mr. Villc's Theories 

Discussed 29-32 

Absorption of Atmospheric Nitrogrn by Vegetation 33-38 

The Passage of Gases through the Vegetable Colloidal Membrane. ... 88 

Results of an Investigation in East India, — Nitrates. — Soda 89-42 

Researches of Boussingault on the Nitrification of the Soil. — Percent- 
ages of Saltpetre in the Soil. — The Nitre Beds of Algeria 43-45 

Jeaunel on Nitrates and Nitrites 46 

Analytical Tables compiled by Emil Wolf 47-56 

Comparative Quantities of Potash, Lime, Phosphoric Acid, and Nitro- 
gen, ill an aTci'age crop of the principal Agricultural Products of 

Germany 57-58 

Why American Agriculturists Object to Chemical FertiUzers 59-60 

Approximate Exhaustive Time Table of Manures and Fertilizers, <fec., 

By Count Von Lippe-Wichcnfcld 61 

Stassfurt Potash Salts — of what they consist, &c C2 

Artificial Plaster, or Sulphate (f Lime 63 

Fermentation of Manures and Nitrification of the Soil 64-65 

Deep and Shallow Plowing 66-67 

"Why Yv'ct Lauds should be Plowe:! in Beds 68 

Synopsis of Agricultural Trials made at Proskau, Germany 69-70 

Grasses 71 

Potato Trials, with Turf and Inorganic ]\Iatter 72-73 

Trials on Sugar Beets, with Turf and Fertilizers 74-75 

1* (5) 



6 CONTENTS. 

Method of Determining the Quantity of Starch in Potatoes 'JQ-'l^ 

Address of Baron Justus Von Liebig ; 18-19 

V/hcat Trials by Messrs. Lav/es and Gilberts '. 80 

Effect of Various Kinds of Manure on Oats and Barley 81 

Miscellaneous Topics: Plow and Cart Horses. — Live Stock, Butter 
and Cheese Factories. — Canals for Irrigation and Transporta- 
tion. — All Seeds for Planting should be imported Free of Duty. . 82-84 

Conclusion 85-8'7 

French Kiloo-rararaes reduced to U. S. Pounds 88 



EXPERIMENTS 

AT THE 

FRENCH SCHOOL OF MANURES. 



By GEORGE VILLE. 



A series of annual conferences are held at Yincenues, 
France, in connection with a national association known as 
the " School of Manures," at which the attendance usually 
includes a considerable number of the most eminent French 
farmers, as well as gentlemen from other countries inter- 
ested in the questions discussed. At one of these confer- 
ences a very valuable paper, conveying information of 
much interest, was read to the assembled agriculturists 
(among whom was M. Duruy, Minister of Public Instruc- 
tion) by Mr. George Yille, then superintendent of the 
institution, under the appointment of the late Emperor, 
Napoleon III. The main portions of this essay, wdiich was 
published at the time in the Journal Officiel de V Empire 
Frangais, have been translated. 

We present Mr. Yille's lecture to the American public 
without any comment, agreeing in the main with the prin- 
ciples laid down, although, in another portion of this work, 
it has been necessary to state points on which there is reason 
to believe this very able agriculturist is incorrect in his 
assertions. 



8 THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 

MR. YILLE'S LECTUEE. 

The year 1869 will be prominent in the annals of agri- 
culture for the progress that has been made, and more 
especially for the number of experiments which have had 
for their object the determining of the nature and effect of 
the various chemical manures. By a brief review, we shall 
be able to form an idea of the importance of the new sys- 
tems which have been inaugurated by the Yincennes school. 

Nearly six hundred experiments have been conducted, 
and these have been made in every portion of our land, and 
under the most varied circumstances, so that they have 
encountered all the unfavorable chances which are met with 
in practical agriculture. Not to multiply details, I will 
confine myself to a statement of the results of these experi- 
ments in relation to the three most important plants of our 
climate — wheat, beet and potatoes. 

As many as 138 experiments were made on wlieat, the 
results of which are summed up in the following tables : 

921 kilogrammes of chemical manure pro- 
duced, on an average, of grain per hectare 29 hecto. 73-100 
while with 
40,203 kilogrammes of farm manure, the crop 

was only 21 hecto. 6-100 

This shows an excess, in round numbers, of 8 J hecto- 
litres of grain per hectare in favor of the cheniical manure. 
But that is not alb. from a classification of these 138 experi- 
ments we find that the variations of crop were as follows : 

~ Crop of 'Wheat per Hectare. 



Cheiuical Manure. Farm Manure. 

No. of Experiments, Hectolitres. Hectolitres. 

10 produced 46.50 89.22 

22 " 35.90 26.84 

20 " 31.20 19.81 

22 " 27.42 14.50 

26 *' 22.44 14.50 

88 " ; 15.00 12.03 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 9 

Or, to pot the same statement in a simpler form, out of 
every four trials, the crops have been in the following pro- 
portions : 

Crop of Wheat per Hectare. 

, ' _^ 

Chemical Manure. Farm Manure. 

No. of Experiments. Hectolitres. Hectolitres. 

Two produced 35.25 25.00 

One " 22.44 14.50 

One " 15.00 12.03 

Hence, it will be seen that, with chemical manure, the 
prospect would be two large crops, one good average crop, 
and one middling crop, out of four plantings; while, with 
farm manure, the result from the same number of trials 
would be an average crop twice, and a middling cro}) twice. 

The experiments with beet lead also to the same con- 
clusion. There were 190 trials, and 

1,326 Idle, of chemical manure gave an average 

per hectare of ; 51,948kilo. 

while 
50,650 kilo, of farm manure gave a crop, per 

hectare, of only 41,811 " 

Excess in favor of chemical manure .... 10,137 " 

When we proceed to classify these trials, the result 
shows a contrast not less significant than in the case of 
wheat, as to the proportionate eiticiencj of the two agents: 

Crop of Beet per Hectare. 

Chemical Manure. Farm Manure. 

No. of Experiments. Kilogi-ammes. Kilogiammes. 

8 produced 91,664 V0,149 

21 •' 63,507 49,900 

35 " 53,673 43,670 

61 " 43,640 • 34,784 

40 " * . 85,373 28,920 

25 " 24,433 23,453 

Thus, in four plantings, the proportion with chemical 
manure is two and one-half increased crops, one average 
crop, and one-half middling crop ; while, in the three first 
plantings, there was an excess of 10,000 kilogrammes over 
the crops obtained by farm manure, 



10 THE NEW FAEMER'S GUIDE, 

"With potatoes, 83 experiments were made, with similar 
satisfactory results : 

Crop of Potatoes per Hectare. 

Chei 
No. of Experiments. 

17 produced 

16 " 

26 " 

24 " 



Chemical Manure. 


Farm Manure. 


Kilogrammes. 


ELilogrammes. 


38,271 


80,812 


24,288 


16,871 


17,266 


14,021 


11,119 


11,683 



The average crop per hectare would, therefore, be as 
follows : 

Crop of Potatoes per Hectare. 
Kilo. Kilogrammes. 

1,090 of chemical manure 22,736 

89,946 of farm manure 18,559 



Excess in favor of chemical inanure 4,177 

EXPERIMENTS IX THE COLONIES. 

The results which have been obtained from experiments 
in the colonics with the sugar-cane are no less striking. 
The yield of the cane is of two kinds, viz., the crop of the 
first year, derived from a planting of cuttings, known as 
planted canes ; and the canes derived from the mother stock 
in succeeding years, which are called sprouts. The firet 
crop is generally the largest. 

I am indebted to the Marquis de Rancougne, proprietor 
of one of the most important sugar manufactories in Guade- 
loupe, for an abstract of the average yield of a plantation 
of 21,000,000 kilo, (both planted canes and sprouts), which 
is placed af 34,000 kilo. From the experiments which 
have been carried on at Guadeloupe by M. de Javrun, dur- 
ing the last three years, it appears that, with chemical man- 
ure, the cane yielded the first year, 84,782 kilo., and the 
second year, 26,875 kilo. This was an average of 55,000 
kilo, per hectare, instead of 34,000. What is more remark- 
able still, moreover, is that, where the chemical manure was 



THE NEV\- FARMEll'S GUIDE, 11 

used, the canes gave ITy^^ per cent, of sugar, while those 
cultivated without manure produced only lly^Tr P®^' cent. 

The importance of these results, in an economical point 
of view, is evident ; but I leave that to be developed by the 
practical men who made the experiments. 

M. Autier, who carries on the farm of Saint Denis, 
near Lechesne, in the Ardennes, with great ability, writing 
me on the 13th of February, 1862, says : 

" My farm has the following distribution of crops : 

Beet, with 50,000 kilo, of manure. 

Wheat. 

Clover. 

Oats. 

Hay (annual). 

Colza, with 80,000 kilo, of manure. 

Wheal. 

"With these 80,000 kilo, of manure, divided over a 
period of seven years, I have obtained, up to the present 
time : • 

17 to 20 hectolitres of wheat per hectare. 
80 to 35 " " oata " 

16 to 17 " " colza " 

" With a supplementary expense of 100 francs per hec- 
tare for chemical fertilizers, my crops have increased the 
last year in the following ratio : 

On 60 hectares of wheat to 80.72 hectolitres. 
" 23 " " oats " 44.88 
"11 " " colza " 24 67 

" The soil in the neighborhood surrounding my farm is 
rich — at least double the value of my land ; but nowhere 
are chemical fertilizers used. The crops which I have ob- 
tained through their application have exceeded by 30 per 
cent, the crops of my neighbors." 

M. Debaine, a cultivator at St. Remi, in the department 
of Seine and Oise, gives the following words of advice to 
the farmers of Beauce, whose vast tracts of land are poorly 



12 THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 

manured : " Concentrate your manure in tlie half of the 
ground." And to others he says; "Employ chemical fer- 
tilizers, and you will double your crops." 

M. Schatteumann, the oldest and one of the most experi- 
enced of French agricultui-ists, recently dead, goes even 
further. " France," said he, " must lose no time in making 
all possible use of chemical fertilizers, so that she may be 
enabled to supply her own wants, and not be surpassed by 
other nations." 

Indeed, no one doubts the fact that with chemical fer- 
tilizers crops are always more abundant than with dung- 
heap manures; but some people raise the objection that 
they are not really fertilizers — that the only action of the 
so-called chemical fertilizers is to dissolve the elements of 
fertility contained in the soil, and thus, sooner or later, ex- 
haust it. Others raise the objection that these fertilizers 
cannot take the plage of farm-yard ipanures, because they 
are deficient in certain qualities which are always found in 
the latter, and which plants cannot do without. What 
amount of truth is there in these assertions ? Absolutely 
none! In proof, take an analysis of farm-yard manure. 
We find, in the first place, 80 per. cent, of water ; but it is 
not to water that it is indebted for its good qualities. The 
useful properties of farm-yard manures are, therefore, to be 
found in the remaining twenty parts. But the value of 
these is considerably reduced when other necessary deduc- 
tions are made: 13.29 per cent, must be subtracted on 
account of the woody fibres and straw, which contain hardly 
any fertilizing properties. Silica, oxide of iron, sulphuric 
acid, chlorine, soda, represent 5. 07 per cent., and all of these 
the worst soils are full of. The really active properties con- 
tained in farm-yard manures are, therefore, reduced to 1.64 
per cent 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 13 

RrCAPITULATIOX, 

Manure (farm-rard) '. , . 100.00 parts. 

Water fcO.OO " 

Woody fibres ,. 18.29 " 

Secondary minerals , 5.07 " 

Active parts 1.64 " 

Total ■ 100.00 

The active parts (1.64) arc composed as follows; 

Azote 0.41 

Phosphoric acid 0.1 8 

Potassium 0.49 

Lime .♦ 0.56 

1.64 

These are the very four substances of which mineral 
manures are composed. 

But there is another objection jet. Is it really certain 
that in the 13.29 per cent, of woody fibres there is nothing 
of any real value as a fertilizer ? We reply, [N'othing is 
more certain. These fibres are, in fact, composed only of 
carbon, liydrogen and oxygen, and each of these the plant 
can obtain in sufiicient quantity from other sources— the 
carbon from the carbonic acid of the air, and the hydrogen 
and oxygen from the rain-water. Let some shavings or 
sawdust be allowed to rot in a manure pit, and what do we 
get ? A manure which is altogether worthless, of a similar 
nature to turf, which is entirely inefficacious as a fertilizer. 
ISTow, it is not reasonable to expect that carbon, hydrogen 
and oxygen in straw will be of any value, when it is known 
that the same agents in other substances are utterly worth- 
less. Geology confirms us in this conclusion. In the order 
of creation, vegetables were the first representatives of life 
on the surface of the globe, and the coal deposits, which are 
so extensive, were formed from the decomposition of the 
primeval forests. At that remote period, vegetation pos- 
sessed a luxuriance and vigor of growth which has since 
2 



14 THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 

greatly decreased. The calamites and the lepidodendrons 
of those primitive ages grew to more than 45 feet in height, 
and formed extensive forests, but they are represented to- 
day by simple plants— the lycopodes ai^d the shave grasses. 
Now, did the lepidodendrons and the calamites find in the 
soil any substances composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxy- 
gen analogous to the humids? It could not have been so, 
for the presence of these substances would necessarily pre- 
suppose an anterior creation. It is evident, then, that the 
new flora derived its Qourishment from other sources than 
the substances which many now regard as highly produc- 
tive of fertility, but which we declare to be altogether 
worthless. Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen cannot be indis- 
pensable to fertility now, for vegetation was much more 
luxuriant at a period when the soil was altogether devoid 
of them. 

Another objection may be urged — that I have struck 
out, from among the active parts of farm-yard manures, 
silica, chlorine, sulphuric acid, oxide of iron, soda and mag- 
nesia; these I call secondary minerak, and they make up 
5.07 per cent, of this manure. These substances are not 
useless in the promotion of vegetable life ; on the contrary, 
plants cannot do without them. Why, then, should they 
be left out of the calculation ? For this reason : that the 
very worst soils possess them in abundance. Let them 
either be added or taken away from the manure, and its 
action as a fertilizer remains the same. Why, therefore, 
should any ingredients be introduced which are of no real 
value? 

We have now arrived at this point in the discussion : 
that farm-yard manures derives its active properties neither 
from its SO per cent, of water nor from its 13.29 per cent, 
of woody fibres, nor yet from the 5.07 per cent, of second- 



THE NEW FAKMEE'S GUIDE. . 15 

avj minerals ; but only from its azote, phosphoric acid, po- 
tassium, and lime, wliich form l^V P^^ cent., and of which 
our chemical fertilizers are also composed. Hence, it fol- 
lows that the superiority of chemical manures— demon- 
strated bj the experience of large cultivators — is clearly 
established and borne out by the analysis of chemical fer- 
tilizers and farm-yard manures ; and this fact also becomes 
clear — that, in spite of the difference in the quantity and 
form, the active substances are one and the same, although, 
in farm-yard manures, there are a number of ingredients 
which are utterly worthless, and which, in the case of chem- 
ical fertilizers, are carefully excluded. Can there any 
longer be a shadow of doubt in the matter? 

Another argument may be used which will throw still 
greater light upon the subject. If the venerable Mathieu 
de Dombasles had been told, some thirty years ago, that it 
was possible, through the use of certain chemical products, 
to regulate the process of vegetation as surely as if it were 
a simple piece of mechanism, that eminent agriculturist 
would have received the assertion with a smile of incredu- 
lity. Yet nothing can be more certain than that this has 
been done in the experiments carried on at Yincennes dur- 
ing the last ten years. The method by which this has been 
accomplished is as follows : All known vegetables, despite 
their different organizations and properties, are composed 
of a small number of elements, which remain always the 
same. These are divided into two groups, distinct in their 
nature and origin. 

Group I. 

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, azote. 

Geoup II. 
Manganese, phosphor, sulphur, chlorine, iron, silicum, 
magnesia, potassium, and sodium. 



16 THE KEW FAEMER'S GUIDE. 

These groups include all the bodies that arc found in 
vegetables, notwitlistanding all differences of origin, form, 
and quality. Scientists conceived the idea that it was pos- 
sible to create ves-otation from these substances, iust as thev 
would manufacture an ordinary commercial product, sucli 
as alum or soap. In order to meet all objections, the ex- 
periments were begun by selecting a worthless soil — cal- 
cined sand — that is to say, ])ure silica, v/hich is an inert 
matter. This was watered with distilled water, which is 
pure water, and some wheat was sown. Vegetation, under 
these conditions, produced hardly the rudiment of a plant 
— the blade scarcely reached a height of 20 centimetres 
(a.bout Y^Q- of an inch), with a diameter about the same 
as that of a medium-sized knitting needle. In the sec- 
ond experiment, some pure carbon was added, with no 
better results — only stunted plants were produced, as on 
the first occasion. On the third trial, a composition of car- 
bon, hydrogen, and oxygen was added, but still the result 
remained the same — the vegetation languished, neither in- 
creasing nor diminishing. At this, of course, we are not at 
all surprised, as we know that all the carbon, hydrogen, and 
oxygen required by plants is furnished by the air and the 
rain. 

The next step in the experiment was to add the ten min- 
eral substances of the second group, in the following com- 
])ositions, viz. : phosphate of lime, phosphate of magnesia, 
sulphate of lime, chloride of sodium, and the silicates of 
potash' of soda, of iron, and of manganese ; but even then 
the result was no better. We are, therefore, led to the in-, 
evitable but singular conclusion that, of the fourteen ele- 
ments which enter into the composition of vegetiTbles, 

thirteen are wholly inert. 

«/ 

In pure sand, we have only a stunted vegetation; in 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 17 

sand eontiiinlng an admixture of compositions of carbon, 
hydrogen, and oxygen, the same result : and no appreciable 
difference when all the minerals are added. One more 
chance is left : let ns try the effect of the application of 
azote in the form of ammonicical salt, and this produces a 
certain action : the foliage of the plant becomes greener, 
and from its appearance when it begins to germinate, one 
might be led to suppose that the plant would continue to 
slioot up. But this is not so ; first indications prove de- 
ceptive; the plant doc^s not really flourish^some unfavor- 
able influences seem to hang over it, and the crop turns out 
bad. There is an early promise of success, but the result is 
insignificant. 

But now, as the last resource, let us persevere in the use 
of azote in the form of ammoniacal salt, adding also the ten 
minerals of the second group, and everything is changed at 
once. In this soil, which beforef had appeared to be cursed 
and. disinherited, in the absence of any fertilizing influence, 
a plant springs up, grows, covers itself with flowers, and 
bears seed exactly similar in every respect to the seeds pro- 
duced in good soil. And now, for the first time, science is 
the master of vegetation. 

Observe, this is no mere theory ; it is a successful ex- 
'^)crin)ent which speaks for itself; it is a fact, which every 
one must acknowledge to be worthy of notice. 

But, to proceed a step further, let us endeavor to solve 
anotlier problem. Since azote, associated with the -above 
ten minerals, produces in a sterile soil a crop equal to the 
growth in a na^turally good soil, we will select a soil of cal- 
cined sand, and add to it a composition of azote, as an in- 
variable ingredient, and also all the minerals, less one. 
Renew this trial as many times as there are minerals, so as 
to observe the influence of the withdrawal of each one. 



18 THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 

Tlie result will be, that while with the composition of the 
azote and all the minerals included, the crop is 25 gr-ammes 
for 22 grains of seed, without the phosphate of lime the 
plant dies ; the withdrawal of the potash reduces the crop to 
nine grammes, and the absence of the lime lessens the crop 
from 25 grammes to 18. As to the secondary minerals, 
there is no need to speak further, as they are always found 
in abundance in the soil. 

Thus we have established, against all possible denial, 
the proposition with which we started — that, by the action 
of certain cliemical matters, vegetation may be produced ; 
and we have proved, by trials made with known substances, 
that different degrees of fertility may be attained. 

[N'ow, let us proceed to inquire, what are the conse- 
quences that follow as the result of these experiments ? If^ 
l>y the aid of these chemical products, we can obtain, in a 
soil altogether deficient in the essentials for producing veg- 
etation, results exactly similar to those produced by good 
soil, with the aid of manure, does it not follow that all the 
ingredients of farm manure, outside of the chemical portion 
which I have described, are useless, or, at least, of second- 
ary importance ? I maintain that the identity of results 
can only be traced to a similarity of causes. 

Kow, as to the last objection that may be urged, Is 
there any doubt as to the correctness of the experiments 
themselves? let me say : M. Kieffel, manager of the school 
of Grqjid-Jouan, had undertaken to superintend them, and 
tiiey were conducted upon an uncultivated and worthless 
piece of land, ploughed up specially for the purpose. He 
sowed two parallel crops of wheat and buckwheat, and ob- 
tained the following results per hectare : 

* Chemical Fertilizers. Farm Manure. 

Buckwheat 33 hectolitres. 19 hectolitres. 

Wheat 20 " 16 



THE XEW FARMER'S -G'uIDE. 19 

Chemical manure is thus seen to be superior to farm 
manure. On land v%'itliout any manure, nothing at all was 
produced, no crop whatever. It cannot, therefore, he said 
that the larger crops obtained by the use of the chemical 
fertilizers were the result of any substances inherent to the 
soil. 

But this is not all. I said that the withdrawal of one 
of the ingredients in the chemical fertilizer annuls the effect 
of all the other parts. M. Rioffel made new experiments 
on this branch of the subject. He omitted the phosphate 
of lime — thete was no crop ; he employed the azote jnatter 
alone — no crop ; he then tried the soil without any manure 
— still no crop ; but when all the elements were united, 
there was an al:iundant crop. All my argument amounts 
to this: that I would advise agriculturists to have done 
with discussions, and make trials for themselves. Many 
have done this, and the result of their experiments has been 
to 2^rove that chemical manure is from two to three hun- 
dred times more productive than farm manure. The ex- 
planation of this is, that in farm-yard manure we have the 
elements of the chemical fertilizer, but they are so mixed 
up with useless substances as to retard tlieir good effects. 

Finally, at my request, trials were made in producing 
vegetation with the chemical fertilizer alone, to the exclu- 
sion of all others, and the experiment succeeded admirably. 
So that there need be no doubt or hesitation. The most ex- 
tensive agricultural trials confirm our conclusions. The 
chemical fertilizers derive their effects from the presence of 
the same elements as are in farm-yard manure ; and ail that 
the latter contains, in excess of the former, is not needed by 
the soil. In order to demonstrate this fact more clearly, I 
have united in the same table a statement of the composi- 
tion of farm manure, of a plant, and of the soil^ taking as a 



20 THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 

unit of comparison the hectare. The manuring and crop 
of a hectare, and the arable layer spread over a hectare — 
what does this table tell us ? It shows that the dung-heap 
possesses about the same composition as the plant, which is 
quite natural, since it is derived from vegetable productions 
modified by animal digestion. Again, it shows that the 
ground contains enormous quantities of the minerals com- 
prised in the second group, as silica, iron, manganese, sul- 
pliur, magnesia, etc., and tlils renders their presence useless 
in manure; while of azote, phosphoric acid, potash and 
lime, the amount is limited ; therefore it is necessary to 
give them back to the ground to make it fertile, and that is 
why we make use of these four substances in the composi- 
tion of our chemical manure. 

"We repeat, then, that azote, phosphoric acid, potash 
and lime are the elements which regulate the production of 
plants. Practical agriculture acknowledges this to be the 
case ; the vegetation of the primitive ages confirms it , and 
the most precise and exact experiments develop and sub- 
stantiate the trath of this theory. But what I must further 
remark, although I have not before alluded to it, is that 
these four substances, though always necessary, do not ful- 
fill an equal role with regard to all plants. According to 
the nature of the plant, one or other of tb.ese four substances 
manifests an action more or less decided on the crop — that 
particular substance dominates in the work of producing 
the crop. In cereals and beet, the dominant agent is azote ; 
while potash has the like effect in the case of beans, peas, 
and the leguminous plants. But we must always remember 
that this action never takes place without the aid and coop- 
eration of the other three elements. If they are withdrawn, 
the one substance alone would have no action whatever. 



THE YEGETABLE AND ANIMAL KINGDOM. 



EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 



"With the majority of farmers, there would probably be 
some difficulty in understanding chemical experiments, un- 
less an explanation were given of the technical and scientific 
terms used. As far as possible, the use of these terms is 
avoided throughout this pamphlet, but in order that every- 
thing may be rightly understood, and a correct judgment 
formed, I will now proceed to give such explanation as may 
be needed. 

Chemists have proved that the vegetable and animal 
kingdoms consist entirely of fifteen substances, called chem- 
ical ingredients. These are divided into two groups. The 
first group comprises carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and azote 
(or nitrogen) ; the second group consists of potash, soda, 
lime, magnesia, silica, alumin, iron, manganese, sulphur, 
phosphorus, and chlorine. These eleven included in the 
second group are inoi-ganic matters, or salts contained in 
the ashes of plants, and therefore they are called the inor- 
ganic ingredients of plants. The first group are known as 
gases ; although carbon is a solid matter, it is in the air, as 
a gas, called carbonic acid. By the wonderful laws of 
nature, each of these substances has such remarkable powers 
of attraction or afianity for the others, in forming chemical 
combinations or assimilations, they need only to be used 
judiciously to be available in bringing all kinds of plants to 
the highest degree of perfection. Now, for instance, we 

(21) 



22 THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 

know that the air is composed of four-fifths nitrogen, one- 
fifth oxygen, and ^^Vo" P^^^ carbonic acid, and that it holds 
from 1 per cent, to 2t per cent, of water. We know that 
water is composed of one-ninth hydrogen and eight-ninths 
oxygen, the two gases chemically bound forming a liquid 
body. Potash, soda, lime and magnesia are combinations 
of oxygen, and these metals only. Ammoniacal gas is 
c'.>mposed of azote and hydrogen ; and nitric acid is a com- 
pound of azote and oxygen. Common salt consists of 
chlorine and sodium — the first, a suflTocating gas, the second, 
a metal that takes fire when brought in contact with water. 

'We know, also, that carbonic acid is composed of 28 
per cent, of carbon and 72 per cent, of oxygen ; that the 
leaf of a plant absorbs carbon and nitrogen, while it rejects 
the oxygen ; that 50 pounds of carbon and 50 pounds of 
water produce 100 pounds of woody fibre; that 50 pounds 
of carbon and 724 pounds of water produce 122|- pounds of 
either sugar, starch, or gum ; and that 50 pounds of caribou 
and 56 pounds of water make 106 pounds of vinegar. 

We further know that about one-half the weight of all 
the crops gathered, for the nourishment of man and beast, 
consist of carbon — the oxygen forms a little over a third 
part, the hydrogen enters into their composition only to the 
extent of a little over 5 per cent., and the azote seldom ex- 
ceeds 2^ or 3 per cent., with from 2 to 8 per cent, of ashes. 
This is shown in tiie following analysis of the component 
parts of different crops in perfect dryness : 

Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Aiote. Ashes. 

Hay 45.8 5.0 38.7 1.5 9.0 

Hay and straw 47.4 5.0 37.8 2.1 7.7 

Potatoes 44.0 5.8 44.7 1.5 4.0 

Wheat 46.1- 5.8 43.4 2.3 2.4 

Wheat straw 48.7 5.3 38.9^ 0.3^ 7.0 

Oats 50.7 6.4 36.7 2.2 4.0 

Oat straw 50.1 5.4 39.0 0.4 5.1 



THE I^EW FARMER'S GUIDE. 23 



Composition of Chemical Substances. 

The following will explain the composition of the vari- 
ous substances and matters mentioned in the foregoing : 

Ammonia consists of 14 parts of nitrogen and 3 parts of liydrogen. 

K"itric acid consists of 14 parts of nitrogen to 40 parts of oxygen. 

Phosphoric acid contains 31 parts of phosphorus to 40 parts of oxygen. 

Superphosphate of lime contains, in 100 parts, about 60 parts of phos- 
phoric acid, about 25 parts of lime, and 15 parts of water. 

Carbonic acid contains 6 parts of carbon and 16 parts of oxygen. 

Sulphuric acid is composed of" 16 parts of sulphur to 24 parts of oxygen. 

Silicic acid consists, in 100 parts, of 46 66-100 of silicon to 63 34-100 of 
oxygen. 

Carbonate of lime, in 100 parts, contains about 44 parts of carbonic acid 
and 56 parts of lime. 

Protoxide of ijon consists of 28 parts of iron to 8 parts of oxygen ; and 
peroxide of iron, 56 parts of iron to 24 parts of oxygen. 

Magnesia contains, in 100 parts, 60 4-100 of magnesium to 39 6-100 of 
oxygen. 

Sulphate of lime contains, in 100 parts, 46 of sulphuric acid, 32 of lime, 
and about 21 of water. 

Common salt contains, in 100 parts, when pure, 60 68-100 of chlorine and 
89 32-100 of sodium. 

Nitrate of soda contains, in 100 parts, 63 53-100 of nitric acid and 36 
47-100 of soda. 

Potassa contains, in 100 parts, 53 41-100 of nitric acid, and 46 59-100 of 
potassa. 

Sulphate of ammonia contains, in 100 parts, 60 60-100 of sulphuric acid, 
25 76-100 of ammonia, and 13 64-100 of water. 



ELEMENTS REQUIRED IN A SOIL TO PRO' 
DUCE GREAT FERTILITY. 



Every farmer is acquainted with this fact, that the bulk 
of all soils consists of three distinct materials, as, for in- 
stance, sand, clay and limestone soil. Fure sand is the 
basis of. silica; pure clay is the basis of aluminum, and is 
composed of about 60 per cent, of silica and 40 per cent, of 
aluminum ; and lime, or carbonate of lime, is a composition 
of lime and carbonic acid. But besides these three sub- 
stances, the soil contains a great deal of organic and inor- 
ganic matter, and upon the quantity and quality of this lat- 
ter depends the fertility or the sterility of a soil. This 
point is illustrated by the well-executed analysis of three 
different soils, given below, which was prepared by Pro- 
fessor Sprengel, a German chemist, w.hile he was at tlie 
head of the Prussian High School of Agriculture. No. 
1 in the analysis is a very fertile alluvial soil in Frisland, 
formerly covered by sea-water, but which had been culti- 
vated over 80 years, and yielded heavy crops without any 
manure. No. 2 is a fertile soil near Gottingen, producing 
good crops of clover, potatoes and turnips, yielding particu- 
larly well when manured with plaster. No. 3 is a very 
sterile soil near Kunebourg. After sufficient water had 
been applied to these three varieties of land, to separate the 
soluble parts from the insoluble matter, the coarse sand from 

(24) 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 25 

the finer ingredients, the analysis for 1,000 parts showed as 
follows : 

No. 1. No. 2. No. 8. 

Soluble saline matters 18 1 1 

Fine earthy and organic matter .. . 937 839 * 599 

Coarse sand 45 160 400 

1,000 1,000 1,000 

The most striking difference in these numbers is the 
large quantity of saline matters found in the No. 1, these 
consisting of chloride cf sodium, chloride of potassium, sul- 
phate of potassium, and plaster, with traces of sulphate of 
magnesia, sulphate of iron, and phosphate of soda. The 
presence of such a large quantity of saline matters is, with- 
out doubt, to be accounted for by the fact that the soil had 
formerly been covered by sea-water, and it was probably 
owing to the same circumstance that it had produced large 
crops without any manure. No. 3, the sterile soil, is found 
to be the lightest of the three — 40 per cent, of it was coarse 
sand, but that alone is not sufficient to account for its ster- 
ility, as there are soils which contain even a greater quan- 
tity of sand without being sterile. The fine matters, sepa- 
rated from the coarse sand and the soluble ingredients, were, 
in 1,000 parts, as follows : 

No. 1. No. 2. No. 8. 

Organic matters 97 50 40 

Silica C48 833 778 

Alumin 57 51 91 

Mixed iinie 59 18 4 

Magnesia 8^ 8 1 

Iron 61 30 81 

Manganese 1 3 0^ 

Potash 2 Traces. Traces. 

Soda 4 

Ammonia Traces. " " 

Chlorine*. 2 " '* 

Sulphur 2 0| 

Phosphoric 4i If " 

Carbonic acid • 40 4^ " 

Loss 14 — 4^ 

1,000 1,000 1,000 



26 THK NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 

The composition of No. 1 verifies the correctness of the 
general principle laid down, that the jpresence of a great 
quantity of inorganic matters of every Icind is needed to 
render a soil eminently fertile. It is necessary, not only 
that the soil contain a considerable quantity of soluble and 
saline ingredients, but that it has, .in addition thereto, 
nearly 10 per cent, of organic matters ; and this becomes of 
still greater importance, in consideration of the large quan- 
tity of inorganic ingredients — 6 per cent, of lime, and also 
potash, soda, and the different acids. 

The soil Ko. 2, though fertile, has but a very small pro- 
portion of soluble saline matters, and amongst the insoluble 
parts, there exist only traces of potash, soda, and the im- 
portant acids — there is only 5 per cent, of organic matters 
and about 2 per cent, of lime. The smallness of the quan- 
tities of some important ingredients, and the entire absence 
of several others, places this soil below that class of soils 
which would be called, naturally very fertile; but, under 
the treatment of a judicious farmer, it might be brought to 
a high degree of productiveness, while, if cultivated without 
manure, it would soon become unproductive. 

In the " fine matters " of the soil, we find that soil No. 
3 has less of the fertilizing ingredients than No. 2 — the or- 
ganic matters amount to about 4 per cent., and the lime to 
one-half per cent. ; but it contains 40 per cent, of coarse 
sand, so that, out of 100 parts, there is only 60 per cent, of 
fine matters, as the first table shows. The absence to such 
a great degree of fertilizing ingredients would not, however, 
in itself be suflScient to condemn such a soil as irremediably 
sterile ; but there is another element in the case to be con- 
sidered : in the fine matters of that soil we find over 5 per 
cent, of oxide of iron, and experience has proved that where 
there is so small a quantity of the vegetable matters, that 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 27 

proportion of oxide of iron is too great, and would exercise 
a verj hurtful influence on cultivated plants. To improve 
such a soil, it would be necessary not only to furnish it with 
additional inorganic ingredients, but also with other reactive 
matters, which should neutralize the injurious effects of the 
oxide of iron. 

In the analysis of these three soils, we find that the first 
sample contains in itself all the elements of fertility in great 
plenty ; the second sample presents a soil which, though 
fertile, is wanting in several important elements, but which 
could be supplied by manuring, and it is reported that 
plaster produces a particularly good effect upon it ; and, 
finally, in the third sample, we have a soil which is not 
only wanting in a great variety of inorganic elements nec- 
essary to the life and growth of plants, but which also 
abounds in an inorganic substance that is always injurious 
to vegetable life. 

The following is an analysis of a very fertile soil in the 
vicinity of the Zuyder Zee, in Holland, as given by the cel- 
ebrated chemist, Mulder : 

Insoluble sand with alumina 67.646 

Soluble silica 2.340 

Alumina, soluble. 1.830 

Peroxide of iron 9.039 

Protoxide of iron 0.350 

Lime 4.092 

Magnesia 0. 130 

Potash 1.026 

Soda 1.9'72 

Ammonia 0.060 

Phosphoric acid 0.466 

Sulphuric acid 0.896 

Carbonic acid 6.085 

Chlorine 1.240 

Humus, or mold, ve<'-etable remains and water chemi- 
cally combined 12.000 

► Loss 0.828 

Total 100.000 



28 THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 

This is a most remarkably rich soil, and few in the 
world can compare with it in furnishing the raw material 
for producing bread and meat. 

These examples will help farmers to comprehend of what 
great service a chemical analysis may be in enlightening 
them as to the composition and real value of a soil, and 
they will readily see the practical benefits to be derived 
therefrom. 



EFFECTS OF VARIOUS KIXDS OF MANURE 
EXPLAINED. 



MR. YILLE'S THEOEIES DISCUSSED, 



In the discussion of the advantages resulting from using 
the various kinds of manures and fertilizers, the main object 
will be not to set up new theories, so much as to show, by 
reference to experiments and the views of writers on the 
subjects, what we deem to be the most correct and best 
established principles. 

ITaturailj, in the consideration of such a question, the 
point first to be referred to is the influence ot farm-yard 
manure on the soil. 

In a translation of the opinions of Mr. Yille (the gentle- 
man already referred to), which has been made by M. A. A. 
Fesquet, and published in this country, the following pas- 
sage occurs : 

FARM-YARD MANURE. 

" Q. How does such a manure act upon the soil? 

^' A, It acts by its nite-ogenized matter, phosphate of 
lime, potassa, and lime, which are the indispensable agents 
for keeping up the fertility of soils, and obtaining all kinds 
of crops. 

" Q. Does farm-yard manure contain only these four 
substances ? 

"^. It contains at least ten more, which it is not nec- 
essary to consider, since plants always find them in the 
earth and in the air." 

3* (29) 



30 THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 

The writer here apparently ignores altogetlier the bene- ' 
ficial effects on the soil produced by the nitrification, the 
fermentation, and the dissolvent power of farm-yard 
manures. 

In another part of the same work I find the following: 

" Q. Is it known in what proportion the soil and air 
furnish nitrogen for the principal crops ? 

'* A. Here are the proportions indicated \>y carefully 
made experiments : 

Nitrogen. From the Air. From the Soil. 

Clover The whole. None. 

Barley 80 per ceut. 20 per cent. 

Rye 80 " 20 

Wheat 50 " 50 

Beets 60 '• 40 

Rape or cole seed (colza). . . '70 " 30 " 

" Q. How can we prove that it is so, and that clover or 
peas, for instance, take no nitrogen from the earth, and 
draw it all from the air ? 

" A. It may be proved in two different ways — by labor- 
atory experiments, and by culture in the field. Let us 
speak first of the laboratory experiments, because the results 
are simple and certain. 

" A sample of earth was calcined in a porcelain furnace, 
in order to destroy all organized substances which may have 
existed in it ; this earth was then mixed with phosphate of 
lime, potassa, and lime, and watered with pure distilled 
water. Clover sown in it grew perfectly well, and the crop 
being analyzed, demonstrated the presence of a large pro- 
portion of nitrogen, evidently due to the air, since there 
was none in the soil. 

*' The practical proofs are not less certain. When a soil 
is cultivated without manuring, the crops become poor very 
rapidly. When wheat is grown every other year, the crop 
is better ; if wheat alternates with horse-beans, which con- 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 31 

tain a great deal of nitrogen, the yield of wheat does not 
diminish. Indeed, the rotation with horse-heans is nearly 
as favorable to wheat as a year of fallow land. Why is it so ? 
Because horse-beans draw their nitrogen from the air, 
whereas wheat extracts it from the soil." 

My reply to this statement is, that the sample of cal- 
cined earth, mixed as described, was in the very best con- 
dition to form nitrates, and a crop of wheat even could 
have been grown upon it. It cannot be stated in what pro- 
portion the nitrogen was absorbed by the soil or by the 
leaves. 

The beneficial eJOiect of all the long-rooted and large- 
leafed plants upon the soil is known perfectly well by all 
practical farmers, but the proofs given by Mr. Yille, are 
scarcely sufficient to warrant such sweeping assertions as 
he has made. 

Concerning the calcined or burned soil, I take the op- 
portunity of stating that, in the mountainous regions of 
Europe, the most unproductive soils are, from time to time, 
thinly over-sliced and burned in small heaps in the dry 
season ; then the dried heaps are left for nitrification un- 
disturbed until the seeding-time, when the heaps are evenly 
spread, and the seed sown, the burnings being hoed in in 
small rows.. Low, wet, turfy lands, which can readily be 
drained, are, when dry, burned to the extent of six or seven 
inches deep, and one-half, more or less, of the burnings is 
used for the manuring of other soils, as it is said the whole 
quantity, if used, would render the soil too rich. The char- 
acteristics of the crops of these fields are : stiff straw, with 
\rell-filled ears, and a good quality of grain ; they render 
about double the amount of grain, in proportion to the 
straw, of tlie growth of cultivated land — that is to say, one 
pound of straw gives as much grain as would be obtained 



32 THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 

from two pounds of the straw of cultivated land. This is 
due to the dissolvent power of burjiing on the inorganic 
matter, which is the cause of nitrification. 

Mr. Yille also says that '' 30 per cent, of nitrogen is lost 
during the decomposition of animal substances," and that 
this loss is altogether unpreventible and without remedy. 
This is not so, as tlie application of plaster in large quanti- 
ties would have prevented the loss of nitrogen. In com- 
posing his fertilizers, he calls the sulphate of lime, lime — 
the incredulous believe that it is more soluble ; but the fact 
is, that 500 parts of water will dissolve one part of plaster, 
while it takes 1,000 parts of water to dissolve an equal 
quantity of calcined lime; therefore, how can his theory be 
correct? It should be noted that Mr. Yille constantly 
speaks of plaster as lime, when it really contains only 32 
parts of lime, the rest being sulphuric acid and water. 
Several times he says, also, that soda has no effect on plants ; 
but, in the end, he found that, practically, it was useful for 
roots, and even potatoes. 

In the same work, referring to potassa, we find the fol- 
lowing : 

" Q, Which is preferable, nitrate of potassa, or refined 
potassa % 

" A^ E"itrate of potassa is preferable, because its potassa 
costs 0.75 francs per kilogramme (or about seven cents per 
pound), whereas, that of the refined potassa amounts to 
1.50 francs per kilogramme (or 14 cents per pound)." 

At the very time this was written, in Germany, refined 
potassa, of 50 to 54 per cent, of pure potassa, was quoted 
from 2 to 2 J cents, gold, per pound. Is this not very much 
like intentionally ignoring known facts? 



ABSORPTION OF ATMOSPHERIC NITROGEN 
BY VEGETATION. 



This subject has been treated upon by M. S. P. Dehe- 
rain, a well-known writer upon agricultural topics, and 
member of the French Academy of Science. The sub- 
joined is an abstract of a lecture delivered by M. Deherain, 
some years since, before the members of the Academy: 

Numerous analyses of arable earths have been made, 
and form part of the records of agricultural science. We 
find this fact to be clearly demonstrated-rthat there exists 
in the soil a considerable quantity of combined nitrogen, 
the origin of which cannot be attributed to old dressings, 
inasmuch as M. Boussingault has discovered that the amount 
of nitrogen absorbed by vegetation during the growth of 
crops, upon a given surface, exceeded the quantity con- 
tained in the manure wdiich that surface had received. 
The excess is often very considerable ; and the explanation 
must be, either the admission that plants draw nitrogen 
directly from the air, and retain it in their tissues, or that, 
in consequence of some reaction, as yet imperfectly under- 
stood, arable eartli becomes charged with atmospheric nitro- 
gen, which is then transmitted to the vegetation. 

The numerous experiments of M. Boussingault, in 
France, and Messrs. Laws, G-ilbert and Pugh, in England, 
attempted with a view of ascertaining if plants absorb nitro- 
gen direct from the air, have failed. The ammonia, or 

(83) 



o4 THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 

nitric acid, which may be produced by meteoric phenom- 
ena, rain, snow, or dew, is scarcely sniEcient to cover the 
loss occasioned by the evaporation of ammonia in the air, 
by the draining of superficial and subsoil (wliich would 
easily be the means of carrying away nitrates), and by the 
emission of free nitrogen, which is produced during the de- 
composition of organic matter used as manure. It is, there- 
fore, evident, d priori, that some powerful cause must act 
upon the soil to produce that fraction of nitrogen, the pres- 
ence of which is proved by analysis. After reflecting upon 
the various circumstances under which the union of the two 
elements of the air occurs, it is found to habitually accom- 
pany the oxidation of the organic ijiatter, and it seemed to 
me, that oxidation of the organic matter arising from the 
remains of former vegetation, or from manure, might, per- 
haps, produce tlie combination of atmospheric nitrogen 
with oxygen. 

To render this certain, I resolved to undertake two 
series of experiments. By the first, I have ascertained the 
absorption of gaseous nitrogen during the oxidation of or- 
ganic matter. In the second experiment, I examined the 
nitrogen in combination, w^th the view of discovering and 
pointing out those reactions which produce the black mat- 
ter (or humus) of arable earth. After several attempts, I 
succeeded in obtaining a regular absorption of nitrogen by 
the following means : Into a matrass of green glass, capable 
of containing 200 cubic centimetres, was introduced a mix- 
ture of equal volumes of air and oxygen, w^hose exact com- 
positions had been ascertained, and then a liquid, consisting 
of 15 grms. of glucose, dissolved in 15 c. c. of water, and 
15 c. c. of common ammonia. This is closed before the 
blowpipe, and if the manipulation is rapid, only a very in- 
significant portion of air can ente^* the matrass. Even 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 35 

should a larger quantity obtain entrance, tlie experiment 
will not be spoiled. The proportion of nitrogen in the 
matrass will become rather larger than is indicated by the 
analysis, only a small quantity of the nitrogen absorbed 
passing unperceived. Heat is applied for 100 hours by the 
water bath, and when completely cooled, the height of the 
liquid is marked upon the neck of the reversed matrass, and 
the end is broken under water. Compared with the pre- 
ceding proportions, the absorption is considerable, nothing 
but nitrogen remaining ; all the oxygen and carbonic acid 
will have disappeared. The gas is collected in a graduated 
eprovette (or tester) ; the entire absence of oxygen, or car- 
bonic acid, is ascei^ined by the application of potash and 
pyrogallic acid ; and the remaining quantity of nitrogen is 
read oif, the quantity being considerably less than what was 
introduced. Here are particulars of .the two experiments : 

Of 100 parts of gas introduced, SS-^Q^g- consisted of oxy- 
gen, 41y%0q- of nitrogen ; the liquid glucose and ammonia 
occupied 30 c. c, and the gas contained in matrass 
184 c. c. Before the experiment, there were 76y|-jj- c. c. 
of nitrogen , in the mixture ; when, after heating the 
matrass, the end was broken under water, only 70 c. c. of 
gas were found, containing neither oxygen nor carbonic 
acid — 6y|-o c. c. of nitrogen were, therefore, absorbed, or 
8y|-g- per cent. 

In one of the experiments, made with the nitrated glu- 
cose of H. P. Thenard, and with ammonia, with gas con- 
taining 62 of nitrogen to 48 of oxygen, an absorption was 
ascertained of 113 c. c, against 53 introduced; that is to 
say, 215 per cent. Six experiments were made with huraic 
acid mixed mth potash, acting upon atmospheric air ; and 
of 100 volumes of nitrogen introduced, an average of seven 
volumes was absorbed. Two experiments were made with 



36 THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 

decayed wood mixed wnth potash ; the introduced gas was 
' rich in oxygen — 3G volumes were absorbed per cent. . Upon 
substituting ammonia for the potash, no absorption of nitro- 
gen was perceived ; on the contrary, at the end of the ex- 
periment, more nitrogen was found tlian at the commence- 
ment. In twenty of these experiments, made with glucose 
and ammonia acting upon equal volumes of air and oxygen, 
an average absorption was established of 5yf^ c. c. of nitro- 
gen to 100 introduced. Lastly, in four experiments, in 
which a mixture of M. P. Thenard's nitrated glucose with 
ammonia was employed, an average absorption of 15.4 to 
100 of introduced nitrogen was observed. 

Thus, in the presence of slow coimbustion of organic 
matters, atmospheric nitrogen enters into combination, 
probably to form nitric acid, which, from contact with excess 
of carbonaceous matter, is reduced, and yields its nitrogen 
to the organic matter. This last reaction has been estab- 
lished by M. P. Thenard, and having verified it, we may, 
by depending upon it, endeavor to imagine what is the 
origin of the excess of nitrogen found in plants, and in the 
soil, over the quantity furnished by manures. The condi- 
tions under which atmospheric nitrogen is brought into 
combination, require that some organic matters should be 
consumed in the air ; every plant, whose leaves remain upon 
the soil which bears it, is the means of more or less fixation 
of nitrogen. This reaction continues during many years, 
and ends by accumulating, upon soil abandoned to spon- 
taneous vegetation, such as waste land, a quantity of nitro- 
gen sufiicient to enable a cultivator, after clearing, to obtain 
several crops without the action of nitrated manure. 

The productive powers of the soil of forests and prairies 
are, however, not to be compared to those of arable land. 
The vegetable remains left upon the former are not in so 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 87 

* 
favorable a state for fermentation as those which form the 
dressing received by the latter ; lor we have already seen 
that nitrated glucose, which occurs during the manufacture 
of farm-yard manure, is the most favorable of all mixtures 
employed for the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. The 
action of manure upon vegetation is not due only to the 
nitrogen it holds, but also to the decomposing carbonaceous 
matter which constitutes the entire mass. When buried in 
the earth, this matter is preserved there some time, if the 
cultivator does not endeavor to finish its oxidation. To 
this end, he tears the earth, he aerates it, he is unsparing of 
his means ; under the influence of the air, the organic mat- 
ter burns, producing in the soil those considerable quantities 
of carbonic acid which the analyses of Messrs. Boussingault 
and Levy have discovered in the air. This combination 
determines the union of the two elements of the air, and 
there is added to the nitrogen, which the dressing naturally 
contains, that which, drawn from the atmosphere, is thence 
conducted through a series of metamorphoses, from the soil 
to the plant, and from the plant to animals. 

What are the conditions of composition, aeration, and 
moisture most favorable to the fixation of atmospheric 
nitrogen in arable soils? This is an important question, 
since, by experiments, the circumstances under which the 
combination of gascDus nitrogen occurs are very clearly 
defined ; and it is also known that it does not so easily take 
place if the oxidation is either too rapid or too slow. 

The French Association at Paris for the Encouragement 
of Science has recognized the importance of making further 
inquiries upon this subject by offering a prize of 2,000 
francs for the best mode of procuring the absorption of at- 
mospheric nitrogen, either in the form of nitrates, ammonia, 
or cyanogen. The prize is offered for tlie year 18T6. 
4 



38 THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 

«r 

]t^itrate of potassa is obtained by the decomposition, 
under large open sheds, of materials of animal origin- mixed 
with earths holding clay and limestone, and which are after- 
wards lixiviated, in order to extract the nitre. This salt, 
for a long time, was produced from old building materials. 
It is not generally known amongst agriculturists that, by 
such a very simple process, nitrogen can be obtained. 



THE PASSAGE OF GASES THROUGH THE YEG- 
ETAELE COLLOIDAL MEMBRANE. 



The recent experiments of M. Bartholomy lead to the 
conclusion that the natural colloidal surfaces of vegetables 
have 13 to 15 times greater admissive power for carbonic 
acid than for nitrogen, and six to seven times more than for 
oxygen. These experiments, proving the dialysis of car- 
bonic acid through the cuticle of leaves, are of the same 
nature as the investigations of Dutrochet, on membranes 
and aqueous solutions, made with a view to determine the 
endosmose by the cellules. In a word, cuticular respiration 
appears sufficiently proved by the presence of this mem- 
brane on all the organs. 



RESULTS OF Al^ INVESTIGATION IN EAST 

Ii\i)IA. 



Some additional information may be . js^atliered on tliis 
subject bj a perusal of the following extract from a very 
valuable and carefully prepared report made to the British 
Government by Mr. Edward Nicholls, a gentleman who 
was appointed specially for the purpose of making an inves- 
tigation as to the quality and composition of water for 
drinking purposes in Eastern India : 

JSTlTRATES. 

^N'itrates are invariably found in well-water derived 
from subsoils of decomposed felspar or of clay. Ammonia, 
whether that normally found in the atmosphere or that pro- 
duced by organic decay, becomes oxidized when in contact 
w4th porous soil ; and in presence of bases with v^eak acids, 
such as silicates and carbonates, it changes into nitric acid, 
and expels the weaker acid. As there are few soils that do 
not contain silicates or carbonates of potassium, sodium, 
magnesium, or calcium, the presence of nitrates is nearly 
universal, and we would naturally Qxpect to find them in 
the washings of salt mounds. The filtration of water 
through, soil containing silicates or carbonates would gener- 
ate nitrates, even if none were present originally. I found 
as much as 15 per cent, of nitric acid in the solid residue of 
a sample of earth washings — a quantity equal to 76 centi- 

(39) 



4:0 THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 

grammes per litre of the fluid, and tlie moisture adhering to 
the crystals of salt, .subsequently obtained, was- highly 
nitrous. The nitrates present in earth washings are always 
deliquescent nitrates of calcium and magnesium, the sodium 
salts being excluded, in consequence of earthy sulphates and 
chlorides having already decomposed any sodium silicate 
or carbonate that would have been available for the satui-a- 
tion of nitric acid, as it is formed. 

Potassium, being of comparatively rare .occurrence in 
these soils, is excluded also from combination as nitrate. 
Nitrates, existing in every sample of earth washings that I 
have examined, are consequently wasted ; while, if the 
mother liquor of the salt crystals was treated with wood 
ashes, or other convenient source of potash, the earthy 
metals would be replaced by potassium, and nitrates would 
be obtained ; the quantity obtained, it is true, w^ould be not 
more than two or three per cent. 

The nearest place where 1 could find nitratesto be regu- 
larly made was at Sirragirri, about 20 miles north of Bel- 
larg. From the account given me of the process by the 
nitrate maker of Sirragirri, it would appear that earthy 
nitrates are never utilized, and that soil containing potas- 
sium nitrate already formed, is the only kind worked. To 
obtain nitrates at once in this condition, in a country where 
potassium salts are in the soil, the nitrate maker must con- 
tine his operations to soils in the neighborhood of villages, 
selecting those spots where, from infiltration of urine, from 
drainage of cattle-sheds, or from the vicinity' of ash-heaps, 
the earth has become artificially supplied with potash. 
Considering that Indians generally use the manufacturing 
processes w^hich are best adapted to circumstances, and 
which, though rude, prove quite as profitable to them as 
the more ingenious, but more expensive, processes of Euro- 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 41 

pean industry, I am rather surprised that the addition of 
potash to earth washings containing earthy nitrates is not 
practiced in India as in Europe. The earth washings are 
allowed to evaporate, and are lost in the mother liquor. 
The nitrate is obtained, tolerably clear, in small prismatic 
crystals, mixed with the cubic crystals of common salt; 
this impurity varies from six to twenty per cent., or more ; 
if required to be refined, it is purified by solution and re- 
crystalization — a most wasteful process, under the circum- 
stances, as about 30 per cent, of the nitrate is lost. 

The impure nitrate is sold at one rupee per mound of 24 
lbs. ; when purified, the same quantity costs one rupee 
twelve annas ; this low figure is, I think, occasioned by the 
nitrate being impure for shipment, as the manufacturers are 
not acquainted with the process of refining economically. 
The nitrate might be bought and refined at a total cost of not 
more than 12<§. per cwt., it being worth 28^. to 30^. at home. 
Ignorance of an economical refining process afibrds the only 
explanation of the low prices obtained for an article of such 
value.* To refine it economically, it would be necessary to 
accumulate a large quantity, mix it well, and determine by 
analysis of a sample the process to be adopted for its puri- 
fication. The process applicable to a nitrate containing five 
per cent, of impurity, would be quite inapplicable to another 
containing 40 per cent, of impurity. 

Soda. 
I have not been able to meet with any instance of this salt 
being produced near Bellarg ; that sold in the ceded districts 
is made, I believe, near Cuddolph ; the sodium carbonate, of 
which impure soda principally consists, is the result of de- 
composition of sodium silicate by atmospheric carbonic 
acid. Silicate and carbonic acid are of equal strength, and 
4« 



42 THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 

it entirely depends on circumstances which acid can expel the 
other from the combination. Silicic acid expels carbonic acid 
from solution, whilst carbonic acid acting in excess, and for 
long periods of time, expels silicic acid from silicates. In 
parts where soda is produced, it is found principally as an 
efflorescence on the surface, the sodium silicate of the soil 
having evidently been decomposed by atmospheric acid. 
Its presence is incompatible with that of earthy chlorides, 
sulphates and nitrates, and as these are constantly found 
accompanying the salt and nitrates yielded by black cotton 
soil, it is evident that the production of salt or nitrates ex- 
cludes that of soda, l^atural sodium carbonate does not 
appear to be produced in India to any considerable extent 
— perhaps little in excess of the limited requirements of 
washermen. The main features of the production of these 
earth salts may be thus summarized : 

Salt is derived from marine deposits in the black cotton 
soil ; it may be mixed with the following impurities: 

(1.) Marine earthy salts, principally magnesium chlo- 
ride and sulphate. 

(2.) Sodium sulphate, produced by decomposition of 
marine sulphates by sodium silicate. 

(3.) Nitrates, principally magnesium and calcium. 
Nitrates do not accompany salt as such (as potash nitre), 
but indirectly as earthy nitrates. Potash can only be ob- 
tained from soils to which potassium has been added acci- 
dentally or purposely ; soils containing the nitrified pro- 
ducts of decayed animal matter are alone profitable to work ; 
even in these there is a great loss, unless potassium salts be 
added. Soda is pi^oduced by action of carbonic acid on the 
sodium silicate of decomposed felspar rocks ; both carbonate 
and the silicate of sodium being decomposed by the soluble 
earthy salts which invariably accompany salt; and nitre 
soils yioldiii;^ the hitter salts caunot yield soda. 



RESEARCHES OF BOUSSWGAULT ON THE 
NITRIFICATION OF THE SOIL. 



M. Bonssingault, in the reports presented bj him to 
the Academj of Science, at Paris, France, gives the results 
of experiments made in hermetically sealed glass balloons, 
during a period of eleven years, with specially prepared 
soils and common air. These experiments proved that no 
more nitrates were produced during that eleven years than 
were formed during the first sixteen or eighteen months ; 
in all cases it was found that not one-fourth of the nitrogen- 
absorbing capacity of the soil was saturated, and the quan- 
tity of nitrogen in the inclosed air did not change, although 
nitrification took place. Therefore, we infer that confined 
dry air with a dry soil will not ofier the best conditions for 
promoting nitrification, as is proved in another part of this 
work. 

Odc of M. Boussingault's experiments was on ten kilo- 
grammes (equal to 22 pounds) of air-dried garden soil, 
which was first washed, to deprive it of the most of its 
nitrates, and then exposed to the air under cover, being 
every two weeks moistened. The indications of the pres- 
ence of nitrates was as follows : 

Nitrates in Grammes. 

On the 5th of August 0.096 

" 17th" " 0.628 

2d "September 1.800 

mil " " 2.160 

" 2d " October 2.260 

(48) 



44 THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 

After the last-mentioned date, the nitrification was con- 
tinued but very feebly ; and several other trials made in 
the same way showed but little variation in the quantity of 
nitrates present. 

Percentages of Saltpetre in Soil. 

M. Bonssingault also shows the percentages of saltpetre 
contained in some of the soils in France, which had been 
worked for a number of years in the manufacture of pow- 
der, to be as follows : 

Quantity of Saltpetre in each 
Kilogramme of Earth. 
No. of Grammes. 

In the Northern ProYinces 1.2 

In Touraine 8.5 

Earth artificially nitrified 10.0 

" exceptionally rich 30.0 

" of a sheepfold , 8.4 

The artificial nitre beds consisted of clay soil, mixed 
with lime and animal matters, under an open shade, and 
worked over as a compost heap, generally for a period of 
15 to 18 months. 

In the same address, which was delivered about a year 
ago, M. Bonssingault repeated a statement which he said 
he had made before the Academy many years previous, 
that land well plowed and manured possessed very much oi 
the same qualities as a nitre bed — in both cases the miner- 
als are associated with inorganic matters in forming the 
composition. 

Among the nitre mines on the equatorial line, the most 
important is that known as the Tacunga, which is very rich : 
it is composed of humus, phosphates, silicate of lime, and a 
great proportion of alkalies. In many parts of Spain the 
soil is so rich that the farmer can produce either saltpetre 
in great abundance or very large crops of wheat. In the 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 45 

valley of the Ganges, in India, the saltpetre of Houssage is 
very much renowned ; it is found in great quantities on the 
surface of the soil, where it is deposited by the waters of 
the river, and it is found side by side with rich crops 
of tobacco, indigo, maize, &c. Therefore, it is certain that 
the association of mineral elements with organic matters is 
not the only condition upon which depends the formation 
of nitrates. There is in Peru an inexhaustible deposit of 
the nitrate of soda which, for its great abundance, is com- 
pared to the deposit of the common salt, except that it has 
a different origin. 

The Nitke Beds of Algeeia 

Have been described somewhat minutely by Colonel 
Chabrier, an officer of the French army, who, when serving 
in Algiers, embraced the opportunity of studying them very 
carefully. They are found on the sites of destroyed villages, 
and are composed of organic and animal matter mixed with 
mineral ingredients, such as lime, phosphate, silicates, and 
alkali salts, in a more or less decomposed state. The rich- 
ness and consequently the value of these nitre beds de- 
pended upon the quantity of organic and mineral matters 
found in them, those containing the §reatest proportion and 
in the most advanced state of decomposition being the 
highest in point of value. 



JEAUNEL ON NITRATES AND NITEITES. 



The following is an extract from a paper by M. J. 
Jeaunel, a member of the French Academy : 

'^ Many physiologists and horticulturists believe that it 
is imj^ossible to group plants in a sterile soil by means of 
artificial food composed of mineral substances dissolved in 
water. My aim is to prove by experiments, (1) that nitrates 
and nitrites are naturally found in soils containing organic 
vegetable matter when in contact with air ; (2) that it is possi- 
ble to feed plants with solutions of mineral compounds suit- 
ably prepared, so that the plants receive from these solutions 
the mineral constituents they require, and may thus grow 
more vigorously even in pure sand than in the best garden 
mold. 

"This opinion was put forth in 1856 by Boussingault, 
as the result of his experiments, and now the same conclu- 
sion is arrived at by Mi'. Yille. 

'^ Soils containing humus or lime determine, while dry- 
ing, the combination of the elements of the air, without any 
intervention of ammonia, so that either nitric or nitrous acid 
is formed, whicli is at once fixed by the lime," 



When a moist nitrogenized animal matter is exposed 
to the action of the air, ammonia is always liberated ; nitric 
acid is never formed. But when alkalies or alkaline bases 
are present, a union of oxygen with the nitrogen and 
nitrates is formed. — -Liebig. 

(46) 



ANALYTICAL TABLES. 



COaiPILED BY Dr. EMILE WOLF. 



The following analyses are selected from a sel'ies pub- 
lished in a very celebrated analytical work by Dr. Emile 
Wolf, Superintendent of Experimental Department at the 
Koyal Agricultural Academy at Hohenheime, Wurtem- 
burg, Germany. 

Table I shows clearly the dominating influence of the 
four principal ingredients — potash, lime, and phosphor, 
with nitrogen — over the secondary mineral salts in the 
principal agricultural crops. In the crops described as 
maximum, where the four dominating ingredients are 
found in the largest quantities, the secondary ingredients 
are also present to a great extent ; while, in the minimum 
crops, where the four dominating ingredients are in the 
smallest quantity, their influence on the secondary ingredi- 
ents is nearly lost, because the latter can scarcely be found 
present in the crops. 

Table II shows the influence upon the ashes in plants 
of the alkali salts — potash and soda — when present in either 
a maximum, mean, or minimum quantity. The study of 
this table will be of great interest, as the presence of a 
larger or smaller quantity of the alkalies is seen to have a 
strikingly different effect upon the other ingredients. This 
contradicts altogether the statements of Mr. Yille and 
others, that soda has no influence upon vegetable growth. 
The alkalies also play a very important part in the nitrifi- 
cation of soils. 

The tables are of great importance to the practical agri- 
culturist — they are the best upon this subject that have ever 
been prepared, and deserve the most careful study and 
perusal, 

(47) 



48 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 



COMPARATIVE STATEME]\^T OF THE PERCEIITAGE OF ASHES 

FOUNB IN AN ANALYSIS OF 

THE PRINCIPAL AGRICULTURAL CROPS. 



IN ion PARTS OF PURE ASHES 



DESCRIPTION.* 



Hay 

Red Clover in Flower., , 



.max. 
med. 
min . 



.max 

med.!98 
min 



Lucerne. 



.max. 
med. 



Winter Wheat (grain) . . , 
Summer Wheat (grain). , 

Winter Rye (grain) 

Barley (grain) 

Oats (grain) 

Indian Corn (grain) 

Peas (grain) ,... . 

Horse Beans (grain) . . . 

Beans (grain) ^. 

Kapeseed (grain) 



11.30 56.5S13.78I32. 70 16.65 4.93 21.31 8.64 63.21 
6.02,25.54 4.43116.72 6.31 1.25 8.01 4.56 27 01 
2.20! 7.63 0.30! 8.38 2.52, 0.13 4.61 0.6510.44 



max.! 
med. 98 



max 
med. 14 
min . ■ 

j 

max 
med. 20 
min 

i 
max . 
med. 50 
min . 

max. 
med. 23 
min . I 

max . I 



max. 
me.i. 29 
min . 

max. 
med. 15 
min . 



9.15'52 02t 
6.83i32.15! 

5.02j 8.77J 

9.53'41.9l! 

7.46:24.581 
5.36:il.40| 

2.46 36.601 
1.97 31.16| 
1.58 23.18 



^.14 29.P9I 
2.07 25.04' 



8.89,53.36 26. 07 
2.03 85.22 10.89 
21.91! 5.34 



3.52 
2.09 
1.60 



2.60 
1.90 

4.07 
3.14 
2.50 



37.54' 
31.471 

27.78 

32. 20! 
20.15i 
11.39| 

24.301 
i6.8Si 
12.94i 



6 22 
2.05 
0.40 

9.07 

2.25 
0.00 

4.06 
1.93 
0.2i 

4.45 
1.70 
0.00 

6.00 
2.53 
0.00 

5.27 
2.24 
0.00 



max. 
med. 
min . 



13 



max . < 
med. i 18 

min .! 



1.72 31.861 7.54 
1.5127.93! 1 
1.28 24.33: 0.00 

4.27 51.411 8.57 

2.73 41.79: 0.96 
2.36 35.801 0.00 



62.88 9.00 
42.17 5.24 
24.74 2.80 

8.2116.26 
8.3411.97, 
0.90; 9.10' 

I I 

4.1213.62! 
2.98 12.09 
2.0710.68 



5.0115.00 6 65 20.20 

1.06 9 87 3.01 2.37 

0.32 4 01, 1.26! 0.00 

3.01 19.34 8.58 19.85 

1.38 8.80 5.93; 6.07 

0.50 4.54 3.94 0.81 

J 1 I 

2.99 52.62 2.22 5.91 

1.31 46.98| 37| 2.11 

0.00 39.20 0.00 O.OOl 0.00 

0.59 51.00 2.48 2.14' 0.80 

0.5148.63 1.52| 1.64 0.48 

0.30 44.20; 0.20! 0.23i O.OT 



21.39 

7.22 
1.88 


11.76 
3.89 
1.20 


8 05 
3.45 
0.95 


1.01 
0.22 



4.11! 

2.63 

1.34; 



.60 



8.35 
3.73| 
1.3] 



14.37 
11.54' 
10.13! 

I 
12. 47 1 
8.6ii 
5.00, 

9.72I 
7.06 
4.93 



1.63 

0.20 

2.93 
0.97 
0.00 

2.05 
67 
0.00 



50.35 
46.931 
39.90! 
I 
42.56 
34.68i 
26.01; 

32.29 
23.02 
15.64 



3.76!17.85! 2.00 53.69 

2.2814.98 1.26 45.00 

0.27 12. Ill 0.00 37.63 

I ! I 

7.90 13.02! 3.8344.41 

4.99! 7 96 0.8636.43 

2.211 5.80! 0.00 29.30 



4.30 47.89 2.61 
3.57 42.49 1.34 4.73 
3.28 35.64 0.00 2.86! 



3.02i 4.51| 1.50 
1.101 1.88 0.61 
0.00, 0.52 0.00 

I 
3.5036.78 5.24 
1.69 27.54" 0.93 
0.0017. 27 00 

! 
4.0155.95 2.88 
1.36144.33 58 
0.00133.46 0.00 

4.13! 5.54' 4.79 
1.80 1.88 1.42 
0.00 0.00 0.00 



9.46 



4.02 51.90! 4.20 

3.22 44.01 1.49 

2.85 87.30 0.00 

5.1929.49! 8.28 

4.44 24 50! 1.63 



9.86! 1.06 44.49 4.63 
7.08 0.57 88.74! 2.53 
5.33 0.00 32.51 1.37 



13.40 12.12 
6.38 7.62 
1.20 5.80 



17.80115.55 
14.18'll.80 



8.3621.841 0.00!10. 



0.70 46.601 6.40 

0.32 35.52! 4.05 

0.00^27.10 1.38 

8.8247.49 9.41 

1.56 42.83 2.39 

0.6335.57 0.00 



8.02 6.50 

0.86 1.54 

0.00 0.00 

5 24 6.85 



0.78 
0.00 
i 
1.71' 
0.57 
0.00 

5.99 
1.42 
0.00 



1.57 
0.00 

2.80 
0.86 
0.00 

88 
0.16 
0.00 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 



49 



COMPARATIVE STATEMENT, &c.— continued 



DESCRIPTION. 



IN 100 PARTS OF PURE ASHES. 



Flaxseed (grain) max 

med . 5 



Winter Wheat (straw). 



.max. 
med. 
min . 



Summer Wheat (straw). . max . 



■Winter Rye (straw) max. 

med, 

min . 

I 

Barley (straw) max. I 

med. 21 
min. 



Oats (straw) . 



Peas (straw) . 



Horse Beans (straw) . . . 
Rapeseed (straw) 



.max. 
med. 
min . 

.max. 
med. 
min . 

.max. 
med. 



.mas, 
med, 
min , 



Flaxseed (s*;rav/) 

Potato (tuber) 

Beets (for cattlo) 



med 
miu , 



,max 
med 



med, 
min . 



c/: I ►- 




4.19 85.97, 3.24: 9 45 18 OT; 2.08 -14. T3' 8.15i 2.48i 44 
3.(59 30.631 2.07| 8.10 14.29 1.12 41.50' 2.34 1 241 16 
3.05^:7.14 1.27j 6.60(10.041 0.38 35.99 0.24 0.40 o'06 



7.00;27 38 
5.87;i3.6o 
4.461 9.47 

6.09 43.40| 
4. 45128. 91 1 
2.99110.051 



7. 23' 
1.38| 
0.00 



5.76| 
2.65! 



5.86 
4.79 
3.15 

6.80 



5.20 
4.70 



5.13 



26. 4S! 
19.241 
9.83| 

44.46! 
22.85 
1©.76 

31.40 
22.12 
13.82 

35.85 
22.90 
9.34 



6.8714 61 
2.69 6.89 
34| 2.89 

6.2710,11 
2 15i 8.58 
0.30! 5.45 



5.18! 

2.48! 

1.25 

4.04! 
2.45 
1.591 

3.4l! 
2.72: 
2 Oil 



1.22! 
0.61| 
0.06, 

1.95 
0.72 
0.17 

2.50 
1.04 
0.16 



8.90 
4.81 
2.21 

6.40 
5.15 



7.94 47 21 
5.35 42 16 
3.65J87.22 

6.63 88.76 
4.92 27.28 
3.511 9 83 



I ! 4.44!45.95 29.65 28.09 
116 3.5331.06 8 14:22.23 
i i 2.06; 9.70 0.00 14 90 



8.45113.10 
4.13 7.77 
1.13 5.34i l,64l 0.00 



4.66 

2.89 
0.83 



5.701 
2.60! 



1.98 
0.( 



15.23! 7.03! 2.70 
86 4.04| 1.45 
4.89 2.331 0.40 



13.57 43.90 13.89! 4.56 
4. 7I36.82 8.04| 1.72 
0.00117.30 3.29 0.00 



8.61129.59 
2.45122.40 
1.7510.03 

25.85 38.47 
9.34 28.37 
0.00 19.06 



i !5, 
i58 3, 
I i 2, 

I !. 

15 6, 

1 i 4, 



8 17S.eiil6, 
77 60.371 2, 

20^43.95; 0, 

27 69.40 89, 
44 54.0:il5, 
41:25.571 5, 



93 6.23 

62: 2.57 
001 0.51 

20i 8.78 
9- 4.19 
30 2.17 



Sugar Beet 

Turnips (root) . 



11.71 
7.58 
6.66 

15.40 
6.01 

2.78 

11.74 
6.58 
3.50 

13.58 
4.69 
1.321 

7.9o! 
4.5i! 
2.11 



2.67 
1.26 
31 

5.52 
1.84 
0.00 



5.59 72.46! 7.43 
2.45i67.50! 1.68 
0.74j49.58i 0.00 

8.95'60.62i 6.13 
3. 1347. 60' 2.19 
3.401 1.46 89.02; 1.10 



7 78| 5.7965.17! 

5.14 2 71 56 SBl 

3.21 0.83'46.52 

7.20 8.01 '68. 50 

4.48! 3 71'52.02i 

2-20 0.80:82 111 



7 54 
4.69 
1.94 



2.51 
0.47 



9.05 
2.26 
0.00 



4 36 r.5. 41 11.99 
8m 9 48.571 6 81 
2.15 33.03 1.50 



18.1516 02:21. 35 16.16 
8.05 6.26! 6.83! 5.64 
3.84 0.61J 0.56! 0.00 

8.80 8.37i3.98:i4.9T 
7.89 8.55 7.37 5.84 
5.03 0.00 2.39, 0.00 

11.S2 13.00 17. 12'24.40 
5.96 7.591 6.34 8.37 
1.23 1.43i 0.00, 0.00 



6.62 29 60 18.4214.22' 8.59 
2.4018.591 6.54: 5.51 4.09 
1.02! 8.03 3. S3 1.47 0.63 

I i I i 

7.18:27.1414.89 
1.1817. 331 6.40 
0.041 8.39 O.U 



Carrots (root) 

S 



med. 
min . 

.max. 
med. 
min . 

.max. 
med. 
min , 



6.56 78.11 24.0412.20 11.02 

98 3.86 55.1110.00 5.3!;] 7 53 

j 2.45 89.7s 0.97, 1.59 2.34 



97 62.68 20, 
01 45.40! 9 
89 26.55! 0, 



7115.901 

8i lO.GOj 
00 5.47 



8.04 53.36 34.75 16.52 7, 
5.58 35.21 22,0711.42 4 
4.34 17.03 10.92 O.SS' 1, 



6.41 
8.69 
1.61 



8.1110.75 
2.13 3.11 
0.00 0.85 



3.1113.02! 6.0410.02 85.45 

82' 8.45| 3.17 2.3S 8.40 
0.39, 1.951 2.01 0.00 1.86 

I I ' 

3.1718 45 8 89 9.0016.95 

0.93 IO.99I 3.81 1 80 5.1s 

0.20^ 6 31| 1.27 0.77 0.53 

2.8518,9418.07 7.9613.85 
0.8112.71111.19 1.87 6.07 
0.19_ 5.48j 2.62, 0.00 1.85 



28i 2.02 15.02 11.73 5.7210.49 
73i 1 08 12.46; 6.72 2.47 5 19 
34 0.00 9,55! 3.49 0.90 O.OS 



50 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 



COMPARATIVE STATEMENT, &c.— continued. 



DESCRlPnON. 



Sea-kale (root) max . 

med. 
min . 

Potato (straw) max . 

med. 
min . 

Beet (for cattle — leaves) . max . 
med. 
min . 

Sugar Beet (leaves) max. 

med. 
min . 

Turnips (leaves) max . 

med. 
min . 

Carrots (leaves) max. 

med. 
min . 

Sea-kale (leaves) max , 

med. 
min . 

Hops max. 

med. 
min . 

Hops (leaves) max. 

med. 
min . 

Hops (bine) max. 

med. 
min 

Tobacco (leaves) max . 

med. 
min , 

Wine (must) max, 

med, 
min , 

Grapevine max 

med 
min 

Mulberry (leaves) max 

med 
min 

Sugar Beets (pressed). . .max 
med 
min 



IN 100 PARTS OF PUKE ASHES, 



1 


1 


4 

•1 


§ 


cu 



-5.25;54 9124 7410.781 S.ll! 



15 3.35|38.3015 



7.02 
27.9+1 2.75 4.41 



4.69! 

i.3o; 



7.19 16.33 15.1317.2110. 
2.51 12.49' 7.93! 4.93 6. 
76; 8.68 5.13 1.07| 1 80 



12.89i42.78' 7.44 46.70 28.471 



6, 8.58 
I 5.16 



20.95 



21.78! 2.31 32.65 16. 51i 
6.38| 0.0016.12! 6.98J 

45.89 34.5613.92 14.52 



4.32:12.14; 7.93 
2.86i 7.89! 6.32 
1.82 2.60 4.90 



13 15.18 30.75 20.29 11.10 9.51 



ill. 10 

129.23 
10 17.58 
8.30 



15. 



S. 96 10.44 7.82] 6.68 

39.9619.40 19.66 20.46 
28.4814.65 14.6514.98 
12.62, 6.79 5.73 6.84 



68 20.26 40. ^S 
1011.64:23 43 9.45 32.92 

I 7.81 12.32i 3.96:25.56 

I17.83I22.26 28.70 41.79 
713.53111.2619.83:32.75 
8.42 7.65 8.81i21.29 



12.46 59 95'28.0826 13 
10.98:26.1817.63 19.67 



8 88 11.46 

15.27'51.61 
7.59 34.45 
5.31 16.31 



4.0613.53 

8.7824.58 
2.19116.65 
O.OOj 9.77 



9.25 
3.96 
1.00 

6.70 
8.46 
1.16 

6 47 
2.42 
1.12 



5.47 
1.49 



28.85;16.58! 6.13'49.68 11.61 
,18.0412.43' 3.8042.55! 6.46 
13.08 5.71J 1. 57.34. 98| 2.38 

6.4131.1510.17 38.73 16.61 
4.85:28.03 4.04:30 88: 6.68 
8.74117.111 1.5822.94; 4.12 



22.93 30.98] 7.88!52.03 15.73 
18.41:20.07! 8.39 41.59 11.72 



17. 16111.43 

0.41071.85 
0.277:63 67 
0.162 51.97 



1 37 

8.66 
1.04 
0.00 



3.69 44.15 28.61 
2.89 30.53 11.10 
2.11J17.381 0.29 

13.43'31.27 2.76 
10.89:23.87 1.36 
7.48,16.371 0.00 

5.05!53.80,18.46 
3.70i34.53 7 
2.78 20.84! 2.45 



2.67 
1.45 
0.51 



7.27 
5.46 

2.08 



10.20 
5.97 
3.08 



2.33 15.49 11.09 
0.98: 6.90I 5.19 
0.171 2.77 1.89 



9.4010.45 
4.32 5.78 
1.93 2.79 

I 
8.27 26.70 
8.60 14.86 
1.15i 1.40 

5 58 26.78 
3.2111.47 
1.49 3.66 



8.29:i4.28ll5.27 8.5716.30 
1.58 7.30 9.40, 3.83 10.13 
0.71 2.43 4.97 0.00 2 45 



4 85 
2.51 
0.59 

8.81 

1 87 
0.80 



8.09 9.90:24.5814.36 
4.42 7.4911.26 8.93 
1.44 4.28 2.40 2.72 



8.9910.69 
6.30, 8 61 
4.68i 5 41 



6.17 22.90 
3.4616.19 
1.02: 2.00 



3.18 22.61 12.23 26.061 6.95 
1.45:16.73 3.58 16.60! 8.28 
O.SSj 9.20, 00 10.48j 2.12 

2.4111.62! 9 13 29.13 5.76 

89, 6 08! 4 12 21.56 2.78 



0.12j 3 52i 1.77 

2.5l!l3.7o! 4.14 

0.88:10. 78; 3.26 
0.21 6.92' 2.64 



27.10[ 7.22 

7.4610.6? 
5 05 5.47 
3.87[ 3.27 

46.86! 9 16 
34.68! 5.19 
25.58: 0.19 

40 59 12.48 
32.781 6.34 
27.67, 3.04 

I 
80.72 22.27 
22.351 6.52 
11 59! 0.00 



4.55 
3.07 
0.57 

0.73 
0.37 
0.00 



12.14 0.00 

i 

11 .84 10.22 

8.46 9.07 

6.07' 8.62 



4.77! 5.94 18.89 11.14 
3.16! 8 86 8 92 5.22 
1.97 2.781 4.51 0.55 



25.43 
17.23 
14.07 



5.50 20.81 
1.31112.64 
0.16 5.25 



1.94 
1.18 
0.74 



12.65 
7 84 
3.51 



5.93 2.18 5.82 
3.56: 1.62 1.42 
0.00 0.87: 0.00 



8.64 
2.13 
0.81 



8.18 8.66 
1.66 0.89 
0.00 0.09 



4.64 37.71, 8.15 
1 84 26.71 1.28 
0.12, 1.46, 0.00 



6.76 19.13, 6.48 25.23 21.40 
8.051 9.84| S.33; 7.72! 8.60 
0.961 4.16' 1.45 O.OOi 0.35 



THE NEW FAEMER'S GQIDE. 



61 



COMPARATIVE STATEMENT, &c.— continued. 



DESCRIPTION. 



Sugar Beets (molasses), .max 
med 
min 

Beech (leaves) max 

med 
min 

Moss max 

med 
min 

Ferns (brake) max . 

med 
min 

Heath max 

med 



IN 100 PARTS OF PUKE ASHES. 



Seaweed 



.max. 
med. 



8.64' 
6.88; 

5.54 

3. 71 
2.56 
1.30. 



72.74 
69.85 
66.15 

7.17i 
3.93; 

1.33 

23.58 
13.50 
3.78 



15.86 

12.17 
9.42 



1.50 
0.63 
0.00 



12.40 
8 88 



7.09 0.78; 0.45 0.80 2.56 1.45 
5.70 CSlj 0.2s 0.60 2.04 0.41 
4.37 0.00 0.08 0.23 1.59, 0.00 

I I i 

61.05 9.55 1.5S 74! 7 00 48.12 

45.18 5.931 1.04 4.14! 3.64 83.69 
25.20 2.14' 0.00, I.I81 1.45 26.70 

I i I 

26.26 10.69 19.28 11.83' 6.56 61.76 
11.55 5.88 11 83 4.54! 5.03 28.77 
1.14 0-00 3.49; 1.06! 2.83 10.90 



7.94 48.30 8.70 21.40 
6.76 35.57. 4.0412.28 
5.1319.35 0.00 4 09 

I I ! 

3.32 34.0411.93 33 48 
11 2.0812.89 6.59 21.49 
0.84| 2.71! 0.86 12.02 

I I ! 

18.64 23.35 34 
1714.91 12.98 22 



11.19, 0.00, 9 



12 25, 
9513 

63 7, 



28 3. 
.94 1. 
.46 0. 

1 
.5412 
.35 4. 
.94 1. 

.19! 4, 
.15! 
.43 



94 20 
64; 8 
33' 1 

77 21 
08 6 
54 

42, 7 
77 3 
00 1 



.00! 6. 
18^ 3. 

.76 0. 

.4411. 

.74! 4. 
.60 1. 

.1730, 
.1421 
.36 12 



55 53 
48 20 
54 2 



11.32 
10.26 
8.5^ 

1.15 
0.39 
0.00 

12.09 
5.05 
0.00 

14.72 
7.89 
1.83 



10 48 
09 29 
03 6 



2.41 
0.00 

37.24 
17.92 
0.53 



52 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 



COMPARATIVE STATEMENT 



SHOWING THE INFLUENCE UPON THE ASHES OP PLANTS 

OF THE 

-A.IjK-A.LI S-A.LTS, I»OT-A.SII J^ISTID SOD-A., 

WHEN PKESENT IN EITHER A MAXIMTTM, MEDIUM, OE MIHIMTM QUANTITY. 



DESCRIPTION. 



Meadow Hay... 



.maxiinum. 
medium. . . 
minimum . 



Red Clover in Flower., . .max . 
med. 
mm . 

Lucerne max. 

ined. 
min. 

"Winter Wheat (grain) . . .max. 
med. 
min . 

Summer Wheat (grain).. max. 
med. 
min . 

Winter Rye (grain) max 

med. 
min 

Barley (grain) max . 

med. 
min . 

Oats (grain) max . 

med. 
min . 

Indian Corn (grain) max . 

med 
min . 

Peas (grain) max. 

med. 
min . 

Horse Beans (grain) max . 

med. 
min . 

Beand (grain) max . 

med. 
min . 

Rapeseed (grain) max . 

med. 
min . 



6.97 
C.02 
4 

7.07 
6.83 
6.64 

7.00 
T.46 

8.48 

1.97 
1.97 
1.96 

2.07 
2.14 
2.16 

2.05 
2.09 
2.11 

2.62 
2.60 
2.57 

3.19 
3.14 



1.45 
1.51 
1.56 



IN 100 PARTS OF PURE ASHES. 



31.30 
25.54 
18.58 

40.26 
32.15 
23 90 









^ 
















s 




^ 




a 




1 


^ 
t 


t 



5.8213 
4.43|16 
2.65,21, 

1.9831, 
2.03:85 
2.07i39, 



24.58! 2.05,42 
13.09' 3.6449 



.27 8. 

.09 7. 
.2210. 
.1614. 

I 
,47- 6. 
.17 5. 
,54 3. 



98! 0, 



92; T.41: 
251 8.01. 

,67 9.51 

85'l0.08 
.06| 9 87i 
.371 9.68{ 

.2510.991 
.88^ B.80: 
.65: 5.77! 



38! 23. 77 
56127.01 
50 31.21 



2.71 
3.01 
3.25 

6.44 



1.91 
2.37 
2.50 

2.77 



5.93 .6.07 
4.9912.69 



83.23 3.38 
31.16! 2.25 
29.25, 1.21 



33.09 
29.99! 



1.19 
1.93 



27.92 2.48 



84.23j 

31.471 
29.65 
i 
23.58 
20.15 
16.50 

18.48 
16.38 
15.09 

28.87 

27.93 

.37 



2.7911.88: 1.39 45.08 0.17 



.3411.971 
3.6712.19: 

4. 22*12. 89; 
2.93 12.091 
2.4611.61 



.31 46.981 37 
,21|48.94: 0.62 

.47!46.78l 0.61 
.5l!48.63 1.52 
,54 50.01 



2.06 2.52 11.98! 1.7144 93 05 
1 70! 2.6311.54 1.63 40 93 1.10 



1.47 2.7111.27 

I 

2.99 2.43! 7.84 

2.53 2.60 8.6i 

2.02' 2.79 9.41 



3.81 
2.24 

1.27 



1.83 
0.50 



3.88 
3.73 
3.54 

2.14 
2.28 
2.6T 



44.81 0.90 4.60 
4.99 
5.51 

4.27 
4.73 
5.20 

7.11 
6.38 
5.54 

13.62 
14.18 
14.63 



2.73 
2.64 


41.79 
38.76 


0.96 
1.12 


3.61 
3.57 
3.54 


45.55 
42.49 
39.43 


1.12 
1.34 
1.55 


8.11 
3.22 
3.83 


46.44 
44.01 
40.98 


1.62 
1.49 
1.40 


4.49 
4.44 
4.40 


25.96 
24.50 
%3.59 


8.87 
1.68 
0.24 



1.57;48 26 1.80 

0.88 32. 6s! 1.64 
0.97 34.68 1.69 
1.0636.65 1.74 



6.85 0.5021.58 
7.06! 67:23. 
7.22i 0.80,24.05 

14.69' 0.7845. 
14.98; 1.26 45.00 
15.571 1.70 44.03 

7.84: 0.8034 
7.96: 0.8636.43 
8.10| 0. 88:37. 8i 

7.25' 0.4237.95 
7.08; 0;57 38.74 
6.86! 0.9039.76 

7.85! 0.24 31.95 
7.62: 0.32 35.52 
7 441 40.39.68 

10.521 1.34 39.73 
11.80! 1.56 42.83 
12.601 1.7043.96 



1.66 
1.36 
1.14 

1.81 
1.30 
0.50 

3.50 
8.49 
8.48 

1.87 
2.53 
8.14 

4.04 
4.05 
4.08 

8.63 
2.39 
1.62 



l.( 



0.71 
1.64 
1.97 

1.58 

1 

2.09 

26.47 
27.54 
28.57 

41.79 
44.33 
46.26 

1.78 
1.88 
2.99 

0.58 
O.SG 
1.15 

47 
0.78 
1.02 

0.54 
0.57 
0.61 

1.04 
1.42 
1.66 



THE N^EW FARMER'S GUIDE. 



53 



COMPARATIVE STATEMENT, &c.— continued. 



DESCRIPTIOX. 



Flaxseed (grain) . . . 



IN 100 PARTS OF PURE ASHES. 



.max. 'iJi 8.36 84.26 
med. 5| 3.69;30.63 
min.l 31 8.91128.21 



1.S9 8.42 13 14 0.50 38.63 1.57 1.46 0.i2 
2.07 8.10 14.2;) 11241.50 2 84 124 0.17 
2.19: 7 89 15.e.6 1.5443.41; 2.83 1.10 0.15 



Winter "Wheat (straw)... max. I 8 5.1718 36 3.08 5.42 2.08 0.53' 8.76 2.25 64.73 2.85 

med. rS; 5.37:13.65; 1.38 5.76 2.43 0.6l! 4.81 2.45 67.50! 1.68 

min.lO 5.56 11.321 0.52, 5.83^ 2.82' O.GSj 5.67 2.61 69.69J 1.26 

Summer "WTieat (straw).. max. I 4; 4.40 36.07! 1 10' 3.14' 1.94 0.55 5.25 3.60 4^.40! 1 81 

med. 7 4.45l28.9l| 2.69 6.S9 2.45, 0.72 5.15 3.18 47.60: 2.19 

4.54;19.38 4 4711.91, 3.12, 1.34, 5.01 2.5149.18, 3.17 



Winter Rye (straw) max. 

med. 



Barley (straw) 

Oats (straw) 

Peas (straw) 

Horse Beans- (straw) . . • 

Rapeseed (straw) 

Flaxseed (straw) 

Potato (tuber) 

Beets (for cattle) 



5 4.41 22.70 
10 4.7919.24 
5 5.26,15.79 



1»99 9.88' 2.67' 0.88 5 23 
2 15! 8.5S' 2.72 1 041 5.14 
2.30: 7.78, 2.77| 1.20! 5.05 



max. 12! 4.76'29 51 4.23 7.42' 2.46 0.14 4.14 
med. 21 1 4.80122.85 4.13 7.771 2.60| 0.691 4.48 
min. 9i 4.94 13.891 3.98 8.26 2.78 1.26! 4.94 



2.96 51.60 2.95 
2,7156 38 2.51 
2.45 60.98 2.0T 



.max, 
med. 



.max. 
med. 
min . 

.max. 
med. 
min , 

.max, 
med , 
min , 

.max 
med 



5.11:25.14 4.17' 7.82 4.15 
4.70-22.121 2. 89' 8. 86! 4.04 
4.30,19.08 1.6110.16 3.89 



4. 60! 



4.95 28 
5.13 22 
5.1917 

5.02 44 
5.35:42 
5.53|40 

5.56 83 

4.92:27 
4.28 21 

3.43 35 
3.1^31 
3.65 26 



1.32 
1.45 4.69 
1.62; 4.81 



3.48 34.55- 
4.07 36.82 
4.52 40.43 

i I 

2.7718.461 
2.45 22.401 



41 



2.21 25.55 

I 
6.01 26.10 
.281 9.84 28.87 
.15:12.67 30.02 

.01! 7.92 21 84 
.061 8. 14 22.23 
.42 8.42 22.73 



.max. 27 3.90|64.98| 2.89! 2.24 
med.;53 3.7760.371 2.62 2.57 
mm.:26 3.40 55.62 2.50! 2.91 



max.! 9 6.41 59.5715.10 
med. 15 6.44 54.02:15.90 
min.; 6, 6.46 45.71 17.43 



Sufrar Leet 



3.74 
4.19. 
4.69 



Turnips (root) 

Carrots (root) 



.max. 42 3.69'63.30 9.50 4. 
med. 98 3.86 55.1110.00 5. 
min . 56 3.92 48.32 10.53 6.29 

.max.liel 8 02'48. 93 10.75' 9.16 
med. 32 8.01 45.40 9.8410 
min. 16 8.00 41.56: 8.93 12.58 



.max, 
med, 
min , 



' 6 5.49 42.19 20.87 9.53 
11 5.5S 85.21 22 0711.42 
5 5.69 26.83 23.50 13. P8 



7.28 
8.04 
8.42 
I 
7 53' 
7.53 
7.62 

5.77: 
"6.01 

6.20 

6.93' 

6.58' 
7.04 

4.01 
4 69 
5.38! 

! 

4.41 
4.54 
4.81 

5.35' 
7.53: 
9.14 



1.72 7.06 
1.72! 8.05 
1.711 8.68 



0.93 
1.26 
1 52 



8.28 
7.39 
6.68 



4.52 46.48 
8 71 52.02! 
2.68 59 84; 

I 
3 03 46.27! 
3.29 48.57 
3.67 48.95, 



6.85 4 54 
6.26; 6.83 
6.19 8.27 



1.97 5.40 
1.84 5.96 
1.70! 6.53 

2.19 12.73 
2.40 13.59 
2.6714.70 



4.64' 7.88' 

3.55: 7.371 

2.67| 6.57, 

8.32' 6.27 

7.59| 6.34 

6.86 6.41 



.21 4.82 8.18 
.54' 5.51 4.09 
.98; 6.31 5.24 



1.97 
2.26 
2.61 

4.63 
6 31 
7.91 

6 83 
5.64 
5.10 

4.23 
5 84 
7.09 

6.90 
8.37 
9.85 



1.1716.09 5.18' 0.79' 3.5G 
1.1817.33 6.49 2.13 3.11 
1.19 18.70 8.OO1 8.111 8.00 



0.51 8.56 2.95 
82 8.451 3.17; 
1.06 8.32 



7fi: 7.85 
0.93 10.99 



.81 



1.34 5.24 
2.33 8.40 
3.9313.14 

I 
O.8O' 5.54 
1.80 5 18 



1.06 12 SO'; 4.58! 2.58 4.75 



8.45 0.6511.2810.46 1.03 5 89 

3.69 0.8112.7111.19; 1.87 5.07 

8.90 1.01 14.0511.791 2.65 4.62 

4.33 1.0211.73] 6.11' 1.38 8.55 

4 73 1 03 12.46] 6.72i 2.47 5 I9 

6.21 1.03 13.361 7.45i 3.77 t.lg 



54: 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 



COMPARATIVE STATEMENT, &c.— continued. 



DESCRIPTION. 



Sea-kale (root) max . 

med. 
min . 

Potato (straw) max . 

med. 
min . 

Beet (for cattle — leaves) .max . 
med. 
min . 

Sugar Beet (leaves) max. 

med. 
min . 

Turnips (leaves) max . 

med. 
min . 

Carrots (leaves) max. 

med. 
min . 

Sea-kale (leaves) max . 

med. 
min . 

Hops max. 

med. 
min . 

Hops (leaves). max . 

med. 
min . 

Hops (bine) max. 

med. 
min . 

Tob acco (leaves) max. 

med. 
min . 

Wine (must) max. 

med. 
min . 

Grapevine max. 

med. 
min . 

Mulberry (leaves) max . 

med. 
min . 

Sugar Beets (pressed). . .max . 
med. 
mjn . 



1 

a 

< 


1 




IN 100 PARTS OF PURE A 


SHES 






1 


1 
in 


i 

2 


»< 


1 


1 


3 
% 


i 

'uj 


.1 

1 


9, 8.88 39 94 19 06 6.00 

151 3.35 38.80 15.68 7.02 

6j 3.18 35.1610.61 8.54 


3.90 
4.69 
5.89 


1.67 12.46 6.53 
2.5112.49 7.93 
3.7S 12.53 10.03 


8.10 
4.98 
7. 69 


8.01 
6.95 
5. 83 


s! 9.1483.671 1 69 21.9512.70 

6i 8.58 21.78' 2.31 32.65 1(5.51 
3i 8.02 9.56; 2.94 43.85 20.32 

III 


2.40 

2.8*; 

3 32 


10.90 7.21 
7.89 6.32 

4.95 5.44 

1 


2.32 
4.32 
5.96 


6.82 
5.78 
4.75 


715.26 36.9517.56 11.18 8.07 
13 15.18 30.75 20.29 11.10 9.51 
6 15.10 24 99 24.12 10. 9i 11.20 


1.81 
1.45 
1.04 


5.93 6.85 
5.46 5.97 
4.1)0 5.14 


4.51 
3 CO 
2.47 


9.51 

14.86 
17.92 


518.80 36.5614.8211.1111.16 
10 17.58 2o 4^14.6514.6514.98 
516.79 20.00 14.47 17.80,18.41- 


0.67 
0.98 
1.32 


4.63 3 71 
6.9.1 5 19 
9.16, 6.66 


2 1815.56 
8 2111.47 
4.24j 7.38 


510.90 29 14' 6.96'32 51 

10 11.64 23 43 9.45 32 92 

512.37 17.73 11.95 33.34 


4.50 
3.96 
3.62 


0.96 
1.58 
2.20 


5.-2 
7 80 

8.87 


9.07 
9.40 
9.74 


3 2510. 15 
8.8510.13 
4.41 ilO 11 


4 12 57 13.58 21.84 83.50 
7 13.53 11.26 19.83 32.75 
3 14.83, 8.17 17.16 31.08 


8. 89 
3.46 
2.90 


2 54 
2.51 
2.46 


4.37 
4.42 
4.48 


7.57 6.28 
7.4911.26 
7.39 17.56 


7.44 
8.93 
10.91 


3 12 24 47 Oil! 6.7815 00 
10 10 98 26.1817.63 19.67 
710 73 17.25 22.27^1.67 


2 85 
2.42 
2.37 


1.90 

1.87 
1.86 


6.95 
6.30 

6.02 


8.88 
8 61 
8 50 


2.47 
3.46 
3.89 


10.20 
16.19 

18.76 


15 7.29 40.51 2.40 15.31 
25 7.5934.45' 2 19 16.65 
10 8.01 25.16' 1. 88 18.66 


4 98 
5.47 
6.22 


1.20 
1.45 
1.81 


16.19 
16.73 
17.54 


1.63 14.79 
8.5816.6i> 
6.52 19.47 


3. 73 

3.28 
2.60 


515.4615.05 4.14'41.98 
818.04 12.43, 8.80 42.55 
8 21.81 8. 04; 3.23 43.83 


5.07 
6.45 

8.1(4 


1.10 

89 
0.54 


7.16 

6.08 
4 26 


4.7018.13 
4 12 21.56 
3.15 27.29 


8.66 
2.73 
1.18 


4' 5.10 80.76' 2.5182.87 
5 4.85 28.03. 4.04 30 88 
1 3.87.17.1110.17 22.94 


4.20 
6.68 
16.61 


0.47 
0.88 
2.51 


10.22 

10. 7S 
12.98 


3.04 
3.26 
4.14 


8.7' 
8.46 
7.46 


8.59 
9.0T 
7.99 


518.7127.67' 4.95 32.56 
1218.4120.07; 8.39 41.59 
718.19,13.73 2 09 48.03 


' 9.69 
11.72 
13.19 


3.40 
8.07 
2.83 


3.05 
3.16 

3.24 


8.9110.62 
8 86 8.92 
4.22 7.71 


5.82 
5.22 
5.14 


6'o.03o'65.62 1.21 4.77 
7 0.277 63 67, 1.04 5.05 
10.162 51.971 — 5.68 


4.61 
5.47 
10.62 


, 0.48 
0.37 


15.86 
17.23 
25.43 


3.16 
3.56 
5.93 


1.84 
1.62 
0.37 


1.66 
1.42 


8 2.97 34.52 16.5130.76 
19 2.89 30.53 11.10 34.68 
11: 2.72 27.62j 7.17 37.54 


8 19 
5.19 
6.65 


'1.17 
: 1.81 

,1.41 


9.55 
12.64 
14.70 


2.13 
2.47 


2.00 0.68 
1.66 0.89 
1.89 1.05 


510.43'27.16! 2.15 34 98 
1510.89 23.87 1.86 32.78 
1011.12 21.53 0.8531.79 


7.40 
6.34 
5.81 


1.02 
1.13 
1.19 


7.67 
7.84 
7.93 


2.4818.98' 1 64 
1.84 26.711 1.23 
1.52 31.58! 1.05 


4 


8.68'44.53 6.4013.49 
8.70 84.53 7.98 22. 3S 
3.72,28.81 8.88 25 98 


5.10 
6.52 
7.75 


'2.77 
3.05 
8.21 


11.97 
9.84 
8.62 


3.27 
3.33 
8.37 


6.90 

7.72 
8.18 


1.86 
8.60 
4.75 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 



COMPARATIVE STATEMENT, &c.—conti7ined. 







i 

f 
<! 

3 
6 
3 

•1 


1 IN IOC PART.S OF PURE ASHE>. 


DESCRIPTION. 


1 j i 

1 1 1 4 i 

9.98 71.69 11.44 5.35 
9.97 69.85 12. IT 5.70 
9.96 68,63 12.00 6.05 

7.68 G.13 1.09 4G. 36 


•a 

1 

a. 31 

0.31 
0.31 

5.22 


1 


0.42 
0.60 
0.7-7 

4 77 


3 


1 


1 

o 


Sugar Beets (molasses) 
Peach (leaves) 


max. 
med. 
min . 

.max. 


0.29 
0.28 
0.26 


2.10' 0.15 
2.04 0.41 
1.95 0.67 

2.82 81.56 


9. 53 
IU.26 
10.94 

0.28 



med.i 6 6.83 3.9.^. 0.(58 ^5.18; 5.93 1.04 4.14 3.6433.69; 0.89 
m;n 31 6.31 1.73 0.18 43.99: 6.30 1.01 3.51, 4.46 35.82 0.49 



Moss max. 

med. 
min . 

Ferns (brake) max . 

med. 
min , 

Heath max. 

med. Ill 2.0812.89 0.59 21.49 
min. 6| 2.42| 7. 89 6. 84 16.88 

max.! 9 15.70 17. 52 24 32 10.65 

med. 17 14.9112.98 22.9513.62 



4 2.3419.85 7 9413 20 8.0012.94 6.93 6.14 13.76 5 00 
7 2.56 13.50 8 38 11.551 5.8811 S3 4.54 5.03 28. 77 5.05 
8i 2.86 5.69 8.96 9.35 2-7210.36! l.Oll 3.52 48.79i 5.11 



5! 6.76 43.13 4.24 14.07 

8' 6.76 35.57 4.04 12.28 

3j 6.76 22.94 3.71 9.30 

5: 1.9120.50 6.22 



t 76 0.84 9.69 4.85 6.0610.01 

6.94 1.G4 8 18! 3.48 20 32 7.89 

5.58 2.98 5.68J 1.20 44.10| 8.95 

11.10 3.14 10.00| 3.93 13.221 2.GT 

' 9.35 4.08 6.741 4.09 29.6fi 2.41 

7.90 4.86! 4.03 4.22 39.99 2.23 



Seaweed. 



e.75 

8.15 



0.29 

0.77 



3.21J20.85 0.8(5 17.67 
3.14 21 54 2.0717.92 



min.! 813.91 7.88 21.26 15.84 9.71: 1.32 3.0422 31 8.44 18.19 



56 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 



STATEMEI^T ILLUSTRATING BY ANALYSIS 



PREDOMINANCE OF POTASH, LIME AND PHOSPHORUS 

IN THE GREAT MAJORITY OF 

VErjKTABLES, FRUITS AND OTHER SUBSTANCES. 



DESCRIPTION. 



Sugar-cane 

Sanfoin, Clover 

Cotton Seed 

" Straw 

•• Fibre 

" Oil-cake, decoriated 

Flaxseed Oil-cake 

Tea Leaves 

Coffee Bean 

Apples, fresh fruit . . . 
Pears, ' " "... 
Cherries, " " .. . 
Plums, " "... 
Gooseberries, " "... 
Strawberries, " "... 
Meat, Beef 

" Veal 

" Pork 

Milk, Woman's 

" Cow's 

" Goat's 

Blood, Human . . 

Hen's Egg, the Albumen . . 

" " Yolk 

Cabbage, white 

Onions 

Asparagus 

Red Clover Roots 

Orange Fruit 

Rhubarb Leaves 



I\ 100 PARTS OF PUhE A!-HE3. 



7.70 39 
5 50 28, 
4.00 36 
8.0121) 
1.03 41 
6.60 47 
5.84 24 
5 48 24 
^19 62 
1.44 35 
1.97^1 
2.20 51 
1.82 59 

3.39 38 

8.40 21 
7 60 48 
5.20 34 
4.06 37 
2.00 38 
1.75 29 

— Ill 
4.36 81 



s 



40 8.24 2 

47 8.2S3G. 

00 1.10| 6. 

06 — 142. 



08 6.01 
00, — 
33' 1.46 
6719.42 
47 1.64 
68 26.09 4 
C9 8.53 7 
85 2 191 7 
21| 0.5410 
6o' 9.92 12 
07:28.48 14 
Olj ~ 
40' 7.26 1 
53 4.54,7 
08: 5.6918 
,77 8.6017 
,62 9.14 4 
,35 36.10 1 
41 26.72 3 



26 3.80 
61 6 49 
02 14 02 
01 8,01 
0311.02 
5815.26. 
4015.831 



3.08i 8.93 
13.92 39.55 
00 
71 
42 
72 



— i3 
5.30 51 
8.41 10 
8.40 38 
8.72 14.47 81.77 



5.1212. 
5:4119. 
1.79 23. 
— 21. 
7.1717. 
7.64 22. 



.87 


6.18 


29 


9.69 


08 


8.751 


.98 


5.22 


.47 


5.46' 


.04 


5.46' 


20 


5.85 


.21 


1 


.91 


2.80; 


99 


1.45 


.58 


4.83 


.78 


0.87| 


.31 


1.90, 


5tt 


2.42' 


87 


1.27 


15 


8 56 


,21 


2.07' 


.58 


3.81 


.77 


4.01 


.88 




.45 


5.71 


.99 


6.55 


.95 


5.59 



— I 7.12] 
1.15 9. 94 
06 3.72| 
O.CiP 18.06! 
2.04 6.04 
1.87 48.00; 
2.6131.62 
2.29 13.281 
0.65 13.29; 
1.4013.59; 
1.0415.20 
1.9815.97; 
3.20 15.10 
4.5619.68 
5.89 18.82 
0.82 36.08 
0.27.48.18 
0.85 44.41 
0.1119.10 
0.38 29.18 

— 14.17 
8.76 11.20 
0.62 4.27 
1.45 69 53 
1.00 16 73 

— 19.67 
0.3112.36 
4.2310.92 
0.92 14.99 
1.28 31.14 



7.70 17 

8.40 

4.01 

8.05 

4 02 

1.13 

8.95 

7.00 

3.80 

6.09 

5.69 

5.09 



6,89 
8.15 

3.84 



2 
1.18 
2.05 
1 

1.50 

14.81 
5.90 
4.49 
6.85 
2.25 
9.52 



0414.33 
28 3.83 
- 05 
0.07 
7.08 
97: — 
50 0.71 
82 1.79 
54 0.91 
32 — 
49 — 
04 1.85 



8.02 

0.03 



12. 



58 0.T5 
05 1.69 
47! 6.04 
81| 6.43 

— 0.62 

— 119.00 
1.0914.37 

— 81.05 

— 84.09 
1.3182.82 
1.551 — 

.32, 7.46 
1.28' 2.(^5 
!.74i 7 84 
5.25' 1.3G 
).24! — 



ANALYSIS 



COMPARATIVE QUANTITIES OF POTASH, LIME, PHOS- 
PHORIC ACID, AND NITROGEN 

In an Average Crop of the Principal Agricultural Productions 
of Germany. 



The subjoizied analysis was prepared by Count Yon 
Lippe-Weihenfeld, and shows the main ingredients of 
which average crops of the leading agricultural products 
in Germany are composed. 

When it is desired to double or treble the crops, it is, 
therefore, only needful to add, in a proportionate degree, to 
these four articles, as it is shown they are the dominat- 
ing ingredients in the composition of the various crops 
mentioned. 

ANALYSIS. 

Average Crop per Acre. Potash. 

Bushels. Pounds, 

Rapeseed . . 26 41 

Wheat 82 31 

Potatoes.... 110 82 

Oats 54 Z1 

Vetches . . , 24,800 U. S. lbs. 158 

Rye 32 43 

Su^r Beets 40,000, '' 206 

Barley 38 24 

il^ed Clover. 42,000 ** 146 



Lime. 


Phos. Acid. 


Nitrogen. 


Pounds. 


Pounds, 


Pounds. 


55 


33 


58 


11 


26 


55 


12 


21 


53 


14 


17 


58 


18 


48 


115 


13 


25 


45 


40 


39 


105 


9 


17 


38 


151 


41 


168 



58 THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 

The foregoing table i& calculated for the surface of a U. 
S. acre, from good average crops, as generally produced in 
Germany, for the express purpose of showing the amount 
of the four most important ingredients contained in good 
average crops — viz., potash, lime, phosphorous, and nitro- 
gen. Their dominating power over the second group of 
inorganic matters and gases, predisposes them for the as- 
similation of the plants, and therefore, in well-prepared 
soils, we may be nearly certain that, in doubling or trebling 
these four ingredients, the crops will be doubled or trebled. 
This has been proved by_a number of trials which have 
taken place. 



WHY AMERICAN AGRICULTURISTS OBJECT 
TO CIIExlICAL FERTILIZERS. 



It must be admitted that very many intelligent farmers 
have great objections to the use of chemical fertilizers, on 
the ground that they are not found beneficial to the extent 
that might be ej^pected ; and in many cases they have had 
very good reasons for the opinions they have formed. The 
explanation, however, is that the proper standard of quality 
has not been maintained by American manufacturers, and 
hence the failure of the manures to produce the desired re- 
sults. I have no hesitation in stating this to be the case, 
not only as the result of my own experience, but on the au- 
thority of two eminent gentlemen, well known amongst 
agriculturists — Mr. James Bennett Chynoweth and Dr. 
William H. Bruckner — in whose " Farmers' and Planters' 
Guide," published in IS'Tl, a series of analyses are given 
(which have never been disproved), showing that the fer- 
tilizers of American manufacture are not of the quality nec- 
essary to produce satisfactory results. This will probably 
continue to be the case until a law is passed fixing a stand- 
ard of quality, which all manufacturers shall be required 
strictly to observe. In Europe such a law was also found 
necessary, and is now carried out under a system of govern- 
mental inspection. By this means the quality can be kept 
up, and tlie manures will be found fully satisfactory in 
America, as they have been proved to be in England, 
France and German v. 

(.59) 



60 THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 

The manufacture of these fertilizers is every day becom- 
ing of greater importance. In consideration of our ex- 
haustive system of cultivation, more especially in the South- 
ern States, and that farm-yard manure is not produced in 
the same abimdance as in European countries, an adequate 
supply of chemical fertilizers of the best quality becomes 
absolutely necessary. It will not be advisable to depend 
for this supply upon importation solely, as already the for- 
eign producers find great demand for these manures in their 
own immediate surroundings ; so that I think it will be 
readily seen as most desirable and beneficial to have the 
manufacture of chemical fertilizers carried on here under 
such regulations and supervision, as I have hinted at. It 
will also be most advantageous to make the raw materials 
necessary for the manufacture of fertilizers ffee of import 
duty, so that there may be every opportunity for home pro- 
ducers to compete with importers as to price and quality. 

If such legislation as I have suggested cannot be readily 
obtained, the next best plan would be for G-ranges and 
farmers' societies to buy up the materials wholesale, and 
mix for themselves as the manures were needed ; by this 
means a better quality of manure would be obtainable. 



APPROXIMATE EXHAUSTIVE TIME TABLE 

Of different hinds of Manures and Fertilizers^ showing 
their state of Exhaustion^ or Assimilation^ in one^ two 
or three years'^ time^ as proved hy a numher of Experi- 
ments made for the purpose of investigating the subject. 



BY COUNT VON LIPPE-WEIHENFELD. 



Per Centage. 



Time of 
Exhaustion. 



Rotten Manure 20 centals. 

Partially Rotten Manure .20 " 

Liquid Manure 15 " 

Nightsoil 15 " 

Peruvian Guano 1 cental . 

Bone' Meal 

Superphosphate 

Fish Guano 

Ammoniated Potash 
Superphosphate .... 
Sulphate of Ammonia . 
Stassfurt Concentrated ) Per cent, of 

Potash \ Piire Potash. 

Potash, 3 times concen- )^ ^ 

trated ) 

Potash, 5 times concen- ) u 

trated ) 



17.23 

11.49 

9.94 

6.63 

3.31 



6.63 



27 to 28 
84 " 37 



52 



26.52 

12.37 
0.66 
3.31 

33.15 
26.52 



14.80 

4.42 

0.15 

9.04 

11.05 

26.52 

19.89 

13.26 

9.94 

13.26 



13.26 

8.84 

6.63 

11.49 

13.70 

3.31 

11.05 
3.31 

8.84 



(61) 



STASSFURT POTASH SALTS 



CONSIST OF 



Muriate of Potash ^ 80 per cent. 

Sulphate of Potash 90 per cent. 

Thej are used as special manures in connection with 
stable manure, and are rarely applied in larger quantities 
than about 200 lbs. of the higher grades, 300 to 400 lbs. of 
the lower grades per acre. In case thej have to be applied 
as top-dressing, for instance, upon meadows, etc., they liave 
to be mixed with at least three to four times their volume 
of soil, compost, etc. They are usually applied together 
with guano, superphosphate of Ikne, ground bone, etc., (^r 
are incorporated w^ith barn-yard manure. The best results 
regarding the same crops have been noticed upon a loamy 
soil, less favorable upon a stiff, wet, clayey, or marshy soil, 
or upon sandy soil without retentive subsoil. When the 
Stassfurt potash salts were first introduced, their true value 
was greatly underestimated on account of the potash being 
in its rough state, and mixed wdth other foreign article-^, 
such as magnesia and common salt. The proportions of 
ingredients given above are recommended as best suited for 
agricultural purposes. I do not recommend the description 
known as kinate, as that has not generally given satisfaction. 



(62) 



ARTIFICIAL PLASTER, OR SULPHATE OF 

LIME. 

Fine pulverized Sulphur ^ 10 pounds. 

Fine pulverized fresh-burned Lime (not slacked) . . 100 pounds. 

These to be mixed together as carefully as possible. In 
a few days the pale yellow color of the mixture will change 
to white, and then through the action of the oxygen is 
formed sulphate of lime. The quantities stated above pro- 
duce 133 pounds of plaster, in a mixture of 180 pounds total 
weight. Plaster is exceedingly useful, not only for the soil, 
but in fermenting the manure, and sprinkling freely in 
stables, its action being to fix the ammonia. As ammonia 
is very volatile, it is fixed efi'ectually by the appiication of 
plaster. Probably this was the object of Mr. Yille in using 
such a large quantity of plaster in his artificial manures. 



(63) 



FERMENTATION OF MANURES AND NITRI- 
FICATION OF THE SOIL. 



What is the most advantageous mode of fermenting 
manure ? and when are the best times for the application ? 

These are questions continually asked in the agricultural 
papers. Messrs. Deherain and Thenard give the best an- 
swer in their trials with nitrated glucose, which holds about 
the same ingredients as a well rotten manure. If a rich 
moist manure-heap is kept in a medium state of tempera- 
ture, not only no ammonia is lost, but 15 to 21 per cent, of 
the atmospheric nitrogen is absorbed by the manure. If 
alkalies, phosphates, carbonate and sulphate of lime are 
added, tli# greater will be the efficacy of the absorbing 
power of the manure ; but in all cases where a quick return 
is not wanted, the sooner the fresh manure can be mixed 
with the soil, the more nitrates will be formed, and the 
action of the fermenting power of the manure on the insol- 
uble inorganic matters in the soil will be the more effective. 
It is proved to-day that nitrogen and the inorganic ingre- 
dients are the predominating elements in vegetable life ; and 
it is not less clearly proved, that though we can produce 
very large crops with artificially-rendered soluble nitrogen- 
ized mineral matters, the most fertile cultivated soils, which 
produce large crops without manure, are eminently rich in 
both organic and inorganic matters in a soluble state. This 

confirms the impressions formed from soil analyses, where 

(64) 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 65 

it was found in two soils equally rich in mineral matters, 
that the one contained a good deal of humus or organic 
matter, and was very fertile, while the second, which was 
devoid of organic matter, produced a good crop only when 
heavily manured, the reason being that through the action 
of the humus, the first soil held soluble inorganic matter, 
while in the latter it was insoluble. 

The best time and mode for manuring is in summer, 
on a plowed soil — the manure well mixed with the suifkce, 
because it is proved that the best conditions for the process 
of nitrification are a warm temperature with a moist soil, 
and a mellow fermenting surface. These are just the con- 
ditions in the tropical countries (where the moisture is sup- 
plied by heavy night dews), under which all the commercial 
nitrates are produced ; in these countries the nitrification of 
the soil goes on the whole year — never ceasing ; whereas, in 
the temperate countries, there is little or no nitrification in 
the winter — it ceases altogether for a longer or shorter time. 
Thus science explains the well-proved practical fact (which 
has long been extensively known and appreciated on the 
continent of Europe), that manure should be mixed in sum- 
mer with a well-plowed soil, stirring it several times, by 
this nieans producing a double action — the nitrifying action 
of the atmospheric nitrogen combining with the decomposi- 
tion of the carbonaceous matter of the manure. This action 
and reaction has a dissolving efiect on the insoluble matters 
in the soil, and helps to render them soluble ; the greater 
the amount of the soluble nitrifiable inineral salts present, 
and the higher the temperature of the summer, the greater 
will be the richness of the nitrates produced by the soil. 
These are facts which cannot be too often repeated to 
farmers. 

6* 



DEEP AND SHALLOW PLOWING, 



Deep plowing 1*3 always a great benefit in rich alluvial 
soils, where the subsoil is permeable and of an even quality 
with the surface soil, and also in nearly all the soils which 
contSn a great quantity of organic and inorganic matter. In 
such soils deep plowing and a continual stirring is sufiicient 
to keep them fertile for a long time ; because, through the 
decomposing action of the air on the organic matters, nitri- 
fication takes place, and at the same time dissolves the in- 
organic matters, and renders them capable of being assimi- 
lated by the plant ; but in all other cases, with thin surface 
soils and defective, poor or impervious subsoils, it would be 
poor economy to mix the surface soil with a part of the 
subsoil (except gradually), because, without a continual 
manuring, the damaging effect would be felt for a long time. 
Such improvements are of little value, except where the 
subsoil holds some organic or inorganic matters ; but in ex- 
ceptional cases, as in turfy soils, where the surface soil con- 
sists of too much organic matter, the subsoil must be brought 
up, no matter what kind of soil ; but the burning of such a 
soil, as is generally done in Europe, would convert it when 
drained into a permanent fertile soil forever. We there- 
fore draw the folio win 2^ 

Conclusions : 

(1.) That all naturally rich soils, holding in a soluble 
state and in great quantities the inorganic matter needed 
as plant-food, should always be deeply cultivated. 

(2.) That all good deep soils, to which some of the prin- 

(66) 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. QT 

cipal inorganic matters have to be added to produce heavy- 
crops, should also be deeply cultivated. 

(3.) In all soils of medium quality, where the subsoil is 
poorer in inofganic matters and in an insoluble state, as is 
generally the case, deep plowing would not be proiitabie, 
except where continual manuring could take place, which 
v/ould^ferment the soil, and render the inorganic matters 
soluble. 

(•1.) It is now proved that a great deal of heavy clay 
soil, very rich in inorganic matters, but without organic 
matters, is nearly unproductive, unless heavily manured, so 
as to render the inorganic matters soluble, because the or- 
ganic matters act as a dissolvent and nitrifier ; and, there- 
fore, in the artificial nitre beds in hot climates, lime and 
organic matters are mixed with clay soil for the production 
of nitrates of potash. 

(5.) In a greater part of the prairie soils of the West, 
there is too much organic matter in proportion to the inor- 
ganic ; and application should be made of lime and alkalies 
for the burning and decomposition of the organic matters, 
as thereby the nitrogen of the air enters into combination 
with the carbonaceous alkaline ingredients to form nitrates. 

In addition, I would say that the most approved princi- 
ple in cultivation is to keep all the manuring matters, or- 
ganic or inorganic, mixed with the surface soil, as it is 
a settled fact that decomposing organic matter in the 
presence of inorganic matter, and in contact with the air, 
leads to the formation of the greater amount of nitrates, 
particularly in the summer season. "When mineral salts 
capable of nitrification are present, the higher the tempera- 
ture, the greater will be the richness of the nitrates pro- 
duced by the soil. 

These are well established facts, whicli cannot be too 
often repeated and kept under the notice of the farmer. 



WHY WET LANDS SHOULD BE PLOWED IN 

BEDS. • 



Yery frequently farmers with large tracts of low-lying 
flat lands suffer greatly from the effects of heavy rains and 
the melting of snow ; and many persons argue that the only 
remedy in their case is the carrying out of a perfect system 
of drainage. 

To drain land in the manner advocated would, in many 
instances — more especially in tlie Western States — be a very 
expensive, if not impracticable, process. 1 would advise in 
all impermeable subsoils that the land should be plowed in 
beds, of from four to six yards wide; and this plan, which 
has long been in operation in various parts of the continent 
of Europe, would be found to answer very much the same 
purpose as the more expensive drainage system. 

Plowing in beds will, to almost the same extent as drain- 
age, render highly productive land that would otherwise be 
unproiitable. One of the first necessities in the cultivation 
of land is to get it well drained, as wet subsoils will never 
nitrify to the extent necessary for rendering them produc- 
tive, and hence the killing of winter wheats, of which 
Western farmers so often complain. But draining in many 
cases presents such insm'mountable difficulties, that farmers 
will not attempt it, unless it can be done by some such 
simple and cheap, process as that I have suggested. 

(68) 



SYNOPSIS OF 

AGRICULTURAL TRIALS MADE AT PROSKAU, GERJVUI^Y. 



A series of agricultural trials were made in 1869, by the 
professors of the Trial School at Proskau, Germany. The 
following were among the results arrived at as to the bene- 
Hcial effects upon the ground of the growth of certain crops : 





'stubble AST) ROOTS AFTER 


HARVEST 


10 INCHES DEEP. 




Totel Dry 

Substances 

per English 

Acre. 

No. of lbs. 


Organic 
Mdtter. 

No. of lbs. 


Ashes. 
No. of lbs. 


Nitrogen. 
No, of lbs. 


Potash. 


Phosphoric 
Acid. 




No. of lbs. 


No. of lbs. 


Lucerne 

Red Clover 

Sanfoin 


9,702 
8,953 
5,952 


8,498 
7,026 
4,925 


1,204 
1,927 
1,027 


137 
193 
124 


37 

82 
48 


40 
75 
30 



In connection witli these trials it is proper to draw at- 
tention to the disadvantages of climate for the growth of 
many plants, from which the American farmer suffers more, 
in comparison, than European agriculturists. The latter 
also, in addition to their extensive cultivation of clovers, 
roots and tubers, vetches and forage plants, possess the 
great benefits arising from the natural and artificially irri- 
gated meadows, which produce large crops without manure 
and with very little labor. In the mountainous parts of 
Europe agriculture could hardly exist without these mead- 
ows, so important is their influence in increasing the pro- 



[uctiveness of the land. 



(69) 



TO THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 

There is an erroneous idea that irrigation has only a 
moistening and dissolving effect — instead of this being the 
case, all the water derived from cultivated soils liolds in a 
soluble state all the ingredients necessary for vegetation, 
and hence the productiveness of this meadow land, to which 
I have referred, without the application of manure. 

It will be observed that, in the above analysis, red clover 
occupies the medium place in the beneficial influence which 
its cultivation produces upon the soil. It is the only one 
of the three that has at present been at all extensively cul- 
tivated in America. Red clover cannot be too largely cul- 
tivated by the American farmer, and it will always be found 
of very great service in preparing the soil for other crops. 

Lucerne is considered the best j^ant for soiling in Eu- 
rope, and I recommend it as the best for introduction here. 
It has not at present received any extensive notice ; but 
there is no reason why it should not be used to a large ex- 
tent. It needs a dry, rich land, as the quicker its growth 
the better is its quality. 

Sanfoin is the best feed for cows, improving the quality 
and increasing the quantity of milk more than anything 
else. It requires a dry soil, either drained, plowed in beds, 
or a naturally dry land. Sanfoin does not require quite 
such rich land as lucerne. 

The cultivation of each of these should receive the care- 
ful attention of all farmers' clubs, and it would be most 
desirable that prizes should be offered for competition, so 
that the best conditions for their growth might be definitely 
ascertained, and their advantages become better known. 

In consideration of the importance of irrigation, I would 
also recommend that prizes should be offered, for general 
competition, with a view of obtaining the best and cheapest 
plans by which American farmers can be enabled to have 
all the information on that subject at their disposal. 



GRASSES 



I recommend for cultivation the quick-growing natural 
grasses: (1) wild rice {siza?iia aqzmtica) ; (2) orchard-grass 
{dactylis glomerata\ already grown extensively in the 
Southern States with great success ; (3) tall oat-grass {ar- 
rhenatherum avenaceum). Each of these are excellent hay 
and pasture grasses, and even for green manuring. Their 
yield is nearly double that of timothy and red-top grasses ; 
and they are very early and late growing grasses. 

I would particularly recommend the sowing of other 
large-leafed and deep-rooted grasses, for the special purpose 
of green manuring, as these can be raised on wet and poor 
land, where clover would not succeed. This was the plan 
advocated by Charles L. Flint, the well-known Secretary of 
the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, in his work 
on " Grasses and Forage Plants," published in 1859, and if 
his advice had been more generally followed, beneficial re- 
sults would have been seen therefrom. 

On this point, as well as the cultivation of clovers and 
irrigation, I would again suggest that prizes should be 
offered by all farmers' clubs, so as to promote trials by- 
farmers, and thus bring about a more general appreciation 
of the importance of selecting the right kinds of grasses. 

(71) 



POTATO TRIALS Y/ITH TURF AND INOR- 
GANIC MATTER. ■ 



Made hy Ph. Zoeller and Beichenbac\ and piMished in Henneberg^s 
^'Journal of Agriculture^^ for 1866. 



These trials were made in wooden boxes, each one filled 
with T20 litres of turf, equal to 760 quarts; and the turf 
contained 5 in each box, 25 kilogrammes (equal tg 55 quarts) 
of ashes. In 100 parts of dry turf there were contained : 

BOX Nq. 1.— turf, with ASHES. 
Potash. Soda. Lime. Magnesia. Phosph. Sulph, Chlorine. Silica. Nitrog. Amm. 
0,110 0,023 1,108 0,095 0,220 0,121 0,039 2,245 2,460 0,183 

BOX No. 2, IN ADDITION TO ABOVE: 

BOX No. 3, IN ADDITION TO ABOVE; 
0,110 0,044 0,068 0,093 0,098 

At the end of September the tops began to dry ; the 
crop was gathered the 3d of October, and the crop in each 
box was as follows • 

AIR-DRIED CROP. 

No. 1. No. 2. No. 8. 

Grammes. Grammes. Grammes. 

Potatoes 2,520 3,062 '7,201 

Tops 1,837 3,535 2,870 

These crops, calculated on the surface of one quarter of 
a hectare, equal to five-eighths of an acre, are as follows : 

No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. 

Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 

Potatoes 7,000 8,506 20,003 

Tops 5,013 9,320 7,972 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 73 

These potatoes were all sound at the digging, but six 
weeks after Nos. 1 and 2 began to rot, while ISTo. 3 remained 
sound until spring time. 

These experiments confirmed the belief which has been 
advanced, that potash and the mineral salts not only pro- 
duce a healthy crop, but by judicious application are capa- 
ble of doubling or even trebling the crop, as Ko. 3 gave 530 
bushels to the acre. 

Potato Trials. 

By T. H, Anderson^ published in the " JouiTud of the Highland Society^'' 

in 1863. 

Two kinds of potatoes — Dalmahoy and Regent — were 
raised on a rich and heavy clay soil, and the conditions 
under which the eight distinct trials were made were as 
follows : 

(a.) Dalmahoy: Trial No. 1 , without mauure ; No. 3, superphosphate of 
lime, 5 cwt., and guano, 3 cwt. ; No. 5, farm-yard manure, 25 tons; No. 7, 
farm yard manure, 35 tons. 

(6.) Regents; Trial No. 2, without manure; No. 4, superphosphate of 
lime, 5 cwt., and guano, 3 cwt.; No. 6, farm-yard manure, 25 tons; No. 8, 
farm-yard manure, 35 tons. 

At the gathering of the crops, October 21st, the average 
weight of a single plant, in grains, was as follows : 

DESCRIPTION OF POTATO. • 

(a.) Dalmahoy. (&.) Regent. 



13 5 7 2468 

Grains. Grains. Grains. Grains. Grains. Grains. Grains. Grains, 

Sound Potatoes. . 6,683 12,383 12,200 10,550 6,014 8,133 8,014 7,616 

Sickly " .. 3,133 2,900 5,016 6,416 2,700 7,916 4,433 3,941 

Tops .. 1,816 1,640 1,750 1,566 1,683 1,688 1,383 1,658 

The i-esult of these experiments confirms the general 
belief that no healthy crops of i)otatoes can be raised in 
heavy, rich soils, no matter what manure may be applied 
to the soil. 



TRIALS OB SUGAR-BEETS WITH TURF AND 
FERTILIZERS. 



Made dy Ph. Zoeller, and published in Henn^erg^s " Journal of Agri- 
culture^' for 1866. 



These trials were made. in wooden boxes, and powdered 
turf was used as soil. The air-dried turf contained 20.83 
per cent, of water, 7.60 of ashes, and 3.11 of nitrogen. 
The ashes contained, in 100 parts: 

Iron & Carb. 

Potash. Soda. Lime. Magne. Phosph. Sulph. Chlor. Alumin. Silicon. Acid. Sand, &c. 
0,924.1,928 31,470 2,660 0,960 0,058 0,000 13,250 7,910 0,000 38,242 

There were six trial-boxes, and each box held 600 litres 
of turf, equal to 632 quarts. 

1^0. 1 contained only turf. 

No. 2. The same turf, with 4,389 grammes of potash, 
366 grammes of ammonia, and 246 grammes of phosphoric 
acid. 

ISTo. 3. The same turf, with 366 grammes of ammonia, 
246 grammes of phosphoric acid. 

No. 4. The same turf, with 366 grammes ammonia, 246 
grammes of phosphoric acid, 438 grammes of potash, and 
250 grammes of common salt. 

No. 5. The same turf, with 438 grammes of potash and 
phosphoric acid. 

No. 6. The same turf, with 438 grammes of potash, 250 
grammes of common salt, and 246 grammes of phosphoric 
acid. 

(74) 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 



Besides, there was added to each box (I^o. 1 excepted), 
100 grammes of magnesia. As the ISTo. 2 was shaded by a 
tree, it cannot well be compared with the others. In each 
box there were nine beets grown, which gave, on the -ith 
of l^ovember, the following results : 



Air-dried Roots . . 
" Leaves . 


No. 1. 
Gram. 
1.552 
2,717 


No. 2.- 

, Gram. 

3,935 

6,625 


No. 3. 
Gram. 
3,322 
7,583 


No. 4. 
Gram. 
8,518 
7,901 


No. 5. 
Gram. 
7,691 
5,706 


No. 6. 
Gram. 
7,723 
8,697 


Percent, of Sugar 
in the Roots. . 


. 7.46 


5.86 


8.34 


6.50 


» 7.32 


4.42 



The results of the six boxes are calculated on the sur- 
face of one quarter of a hectare to f of an acre : 

No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No 4 No. 5. No. 6. 

Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 

Roots 7,964 20,192 17,047 43,695 39,466 39,610 

Leaves 13,942 33,996 38,912 40,544 29,280 44,629 

The general conclusion to be drawn from these trials is, 
that ammonia and chlorine develop the blade more than 
the roots. 

Potash is needed for tlie production of nearly every crop, 
but particularly for potatoes and sugar-beets. In the case 
of potatoes, it develops the starch, and improves both quan- 
tity and quality; while, in sugar-beets, it increases the per- 
centage of saccharine matter. Farm-yard manure is dam- 
aging for both of these ; it will injure the taste of potatoes 
and produce rot, and if used with sngar-beets, the quality 
will deteriorate, in consequence of foreign matters destruc- 
tive of the saccharine qualities being thereby introduced. 

Large potatoes should always be selected for the pur- 
poses of seed ; cut the tops (not too thin) between the fail 
and spring, and keep dry until planting time. 

It is proved that nearly all seeds are the best and 
soundest when they contain the largest quantity of inor- 
ganic matters. 



METHOD FOR DETERimiKG THE QUANTITY 
OF STARCH IN POTATOES, 

As practiced by the Starch Manufacturers in Germany. . 



The process is as follows : . 

Take seven large glasses, and put in each one half a 
pound of water, then add to the first glass 480 grains of 
well-roasted common salt ; to- second glass, 540 grains ; to 
third, 600 grains ; to fourth, 660 grains ; to fifth, 720 grains ; 
to sixth, 780 grains ; and to seventh, 840 grains. If the 
salt is all dissolved, then put the potato that is to be tried 
in No. 7 ; if it swims, put it into No. 6, and so on, until the 
glass is found where it sinks, and the water is, therefore, 
lighter than the potato. Note the. number, and then con- 
tinue trying six to eight of the same kind of potatoes, mark- 
ing the number of each yjotato, and the glass in which it 
sinks. Then add all these numbers together, and the aver- 
age, or mean, will indicate the approximate Quantity of 
starch contained in any khid of potato tried, as is shown by 
the annexed table : 



Salt Solutions. 
No. 1. 
" 2. 
" 3. 
" 4. 
" 5. 



Quantity of Salt 


Approximate 


in half pound of AVater. 


per cent, of Starch, 


480 grains. 


15 


540 


17 


600 


19 


660 " - 


21 


720 


22i 


780 " 


24 


840 


26 



C^e) 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDK 77 

If the potato swims in No. 1, then it has less than 15 
per cent, of starch ; and if it sinks in 'No. T, then it has 
more than 26 per cent. Though these trials give onlj ap- 
proximate results, it is proved that different sorts of pota- 
toes may vary between 14 and 27 per cent, in starch. The 
fact that any body can at any time make these experiments, 
is of the greatest importance for farmers, starch manufac- 
turers and dealers to know, as the percentage of starch in a 
potato determines its quality. 



ADDRESS 

or 

BARON JUSTUS VON LIEBIG 

TO THK 

ACADEilT OP SCIENCES AT MUNICH. 



During last year, experiments relative to the establish- 
ment of laws on the nutrition of plants have been pursued 
by the Institute of Physiology of Plants, under direction of 
Professor Nsegali and Dr. Zoeller. Their experiments were 
made upon the potato, as the plant most important for food 
after the cereals (corn). Three fields were prepared for ex- 
perimenting on ; the first composed of mold (pulverized 
peat) from the turf-beds of Kolb ; the second, of the same 
soil, mixed with ammoniacal salts, as the principal agent in 
animal manure; and the third, of the same mold, to which 
was added the fixed elements constituting the ashes of the 
potato. An equal number of tubers of the same kind were 
planted in each field. 

Without detailing the various stages of development, I 
will confine myself to calling attention to the diiferences 
between the crops. That from the land manured with the 
ammoniacal salts was 20 per cent, larger than that of the 
field 'No. 1, which had received no addition ; but that of the 
third field (which had the manure of phosphate of lime and 
of potash) was nearly triple. The proportion of the three 
crops ran thus: 100, 120 and 285. The quantity of pota- 
toes gathered on field Ko. 3, to which had been furnished 

(IS) 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE, 79 

the elements composing the ashes of the plant, was 282 
hundred-weight to each workman — nearly double -the crop 
given by the best arable land. 

The results, so very different, of the three experiments 
can only be attributed to the different composition of the 
land of the three fields, all other conditions being identically 
alike. In tlie two first, a number of circumstances were to 
produce in the subterranean organs as many organic sub- 
stances (or tubercles) as in the third ; or rather, which is the 
same, to take from the air a sum equal to their constituent 
elements. 

These indications, although important enough in them- 
selves, are, nevertheless, not the most remarkable results of 
the experiments ; for here is the precious information they 
give us: All the potatoes gathered from the two fields 
which, by the composition of their soil, presented the ele- 
ments necessary for the development of the plants only in 
insufficient quantity, or in false proportions, were the prey 
of disease. From the straws, which became black, decom- 
position spread, and at the end of a few weeks had thor- 
oughly gone through the interior. In opposition, the pota- 
toes in the third field, manured with the fixed elements of 
the plants, are now (Dec. 1st, 1865) perfectly sound : in 
not one is seen traces of the ravages commonly attributed 
to the oidium. Hence, from these observations, we see that, 
undoubtedly, the conditions favorable to the normal devel- 
opment of plants are those which prevent disease, and that, 
in consequence, the first cause of the disastrous epidemic 
should be sought in the land. If the land present in suffi- 
cient quantity the elements indispensable to organic life, or 
the growth of the plant, the latter receives the power of op- 
posing resistance great enough to paralyze completely all 
hurtful influences which can affect it from outside. 



WHEAT TRIALS 

By Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, in England, between the 
years 1845 and 1854, showing the Average Crop per 
acre from Unmanured Land, with the use of Am- 
monia Salts alone^ and of Mineral Manure combined 
with Ammonia Salts. These trials were continued for 
twenty consecutive years 071 the same field, the results 
being always about the sar)ie. 



AVERAGE CROP PER ACRE. 







Use of Mineral Manure 


lanured Land. 


Use of Ammonia Salts alone. 


with Ammonia Salts. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


2,856 


4,808 


5,564 



EFFECT OF VARIOUS KINDS OF MANURE 
ON OATS AND BARLEY. 



Table showing the comparative quantity of starch and 
albumen contained in 100 pounds of oats, barley and wheat 
grown on the same kind of soil, but with different kinds of 
manure — -an equal quantity of manure for each kind of 
grain : 



f 


BARLEY. 


OATS. 


WHEAT. 


DESCRIPTION OF 
MANURE. 


Percentage of 
Starch. Albumen. 


Percentage of 


Percentage of 




Starch. 


Albumen. 


Starch. 


Albumen. 


Blood 


66^ 

66 

66i 

66 

69 

69 

69i 


6i 
61 
H 

H 

3 
3 


60 

60 

61 

61i 

62 

66^- 

664^ 


5 

H 


41 

42 
62 

62 
G6 


54 


Poudrette 




Sheep Manure 

Horse " 

Cattle " 

Green " 

Without " 


33 
14 
12 
10 



This table shows that very rich nitrogenized manures 
have little beneficial influence on the grain of oats and 
barley ; and therefore it was an error on the part of Mr. 
Yille to recommend such a free application of nitrogen in 
the cultivation of those crops. 

(81) 



MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS. 



Plow and Ca^rt-horses. 

A question which must yet receive careful attention on 
the part of American agriculturists is, as to the best method 
of procuring and retaining a class of useful, solid plow and 
cart-horses. The mere importation of a good race of horseP 
is not sufficient, unless the type shall be kept pure. In 
Europe the same difficulty has liad to be met ; and it has 
been proved by the experience of the past that the charac- 
ter of horses soon deteriorates if mixed with a breed of a 
different class. What is greatly needed here is to obtain a 
class of agricultural horses fitted to the country and to the 
especial work for which they are intended, and then let the 
race be kept pure and distinct, introducing, when necessary, 
oriental horses for giving more vigor and improving the 
type. I would advise, also, as likely to prove advantage- 
ous, the production of a. class of larger mules. 

LrvE-sTOCK, Feeding, Buttek and Cheese Factokies, &g. 

My advice to Western farmers is, to keep an improved 
class of live-stock, and to use all their corn for the purposes 
of feeding, as this will, in the end, be found more profitable, 
and a large quantity of manure will thus be produced. 

Farmers should also combine for the purpose of estab- 
lishing butter and cheese factories, slaughter and smoke- 

(82) 



THE NEW FARMER'S GL'IDE. 83 

houses ; if they do this, I believe they will have the advan- 
tage over all the farmers of the world. 

Canals foe Irrigation and Transportation. 

In another part of this work, I have suggested a method 
by which farmers who cannot afford the expense of carry- 
ing out a system of drainage or irrigation, may promote 
the fertility of their land by plowing in beds; yet I 
cannot too strongly enforce the need for irrigation and that 
the making of canals be more generally attended to. It is 
only by these means that much of the land can be continued 
fertile ; and the canals made for the purpose of irrigation 
may afford the means of transportation, as well as refresh- 
ing the land during the summer months. This is what 
England is doing on a very extensive scale in her Indian 
possessions ; and the same idea has commended itself to the 
large bodies of practical agriculturists assembled in the 
various Granges recently formed in this country, by whom 
the question of transportation has been discussed with a 
view to the discovery of the most practical method of sur- 
mounting the difficulties in the way of successful farming 
in the Western States. • 

All Seeds fob Planting should be Imported Free of 

Duty. 

In Russia a special arrangement is made, under govern- 
ment authority and superintendence, for the production of 
flaxseed exclusively for seeding. It is grown under the most 
favorable conditions possible, and is raised for the express 
purpose of exportation. Before leaving the exporters' hands 
it is packed and officially stamped. The quality is so re- 
markably good that it produces double the crop of fibre and 



84 THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 

seed as compared with other kinds of seed, and at the same 
time a crop of superior quality to any other. 

The diflSculty in the way of this seed being used in 
America is, that it is very high in price, by reason of the 
amount of import duty which has to be paid. There ought 
not to be any duty for the importation of seeds intended 
solely for the purposes of planting ; but the actual fact is, 
they have to pay higher duty than any other descriptions 
of seed — ^just contrary to the practice in the leading Euro- 
pean countries. 



CONCLUSION, 



I would draw special attention to a few of the leading 
points presented in the foregoing pages, mj desire being to 
make the hints I have given as practical and useful as pos- 
sible to American farmers. 

Agreeing, in the main, with the lecture of Mr. Yille, I 
cannot omit to mention that, in my view, some of the opin- 
ions advanced by that gentleman are too extreme and 
sweeping. 

In contrasting the influence of farm-yard manure 
with chemical fertilizers, for instance, his estimate of 
the value of the former is not fair or just, as sufficient im- 
portance is not attached to the four inorganic matters found 
therein. 

His statement that the worst soils possess secondary 
minerals in abundance is wide of the truth, as that is 
not the case ; and in one instance the experiments on whict^ 
his argument is based are contradictory, it being proved in 
one experiment that the plant did not die wlien there was 
no phosphate, while in another place he affirms that it did. 

Still, taken as a whole, the lecture is an im.portantaid to 
the discussion of the question at issue, even though the 
opinions advanced in favor of the excellences of artificial 
manures are a little inclined to be extreme. 

The first principle needed to be understood, in order to 
successful farming, is as to the nature and qualities required 
to make a soil productive ; and the analysis of three kinds 
of land will throw light upon that point, showing, as it does, 
that the presence of a great quantity of inorganic matters 

8 (So) 



86 THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 

of every kind is absolutely necessary to render a soil thor^ 
ouglily fertile and productive. 

The theory of M. Deherain, as to absorption of atmos- 
pheric nitrogen by vegetation, I hold to be correct. The 
question as to the proportionate quantity of nitrogen drawn 
by plants direct from the air had certainly never been set- 
tled by the experiments of Boussingault, Laws and Gilbert, 
or the writings of Jeaunel, Thenard, and others ; but M. 
Deherain's experiment is very clear, and his theory may, 
perhaps, be considered almost conclusive. 

The investigations by Mr. Nicholls in East India, and 

the experiments of M. Bartholomy, as to the passage of 

gases through the vegetable colloidal membrane, are valu-. 

able, as furnishing confirmatory evidence as to the correct- 

• ness of M. Deherain's theories. 

Among agriculturists there has always been a wide dif- 
ference of opinion upon this important subject — the action 
of the air in the nitrification of the soil ; and I have, there- 
fore, thought it advisable to bring together in this work 
the thoughts and arguments of several eminent men, with 
a view of elucidating the whole question, and showing the 
present position of the discussion as plainly and clearly as 
possible. 

The analytical tables of Dr. Emile Wolf are, probably, 
the most complete and authentic of any analyses ever pub- 
lished on the particular question to which they refer, 
namely, the percentage of ashes found in the principal agri- 
cultural crops, and the efiects produced by alkalies upon 
the other inorganic matters ; the latter being given with a 
view of proving that potash, lime, phosphorus and nitrogen 
are the four dominating ingredients, upon whose presence 
in the soil depends, in a great measure, the value of the 
crops produced. 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 8< 

The analysis bj Count Yon Lippc-Weihenfeld, showing 
tlie four dominating ingredients in an average crop of the 
leadiug agricultural products of Germany, confirms the cor- 
rectness of the calculations of Dr. Wolf, and also of the 
opinions to which I have given prominence. 

I wish to draw marked attention to the importance of 
using a greater quantity of nitrates in farming operations 
in this country. More lime and alkalies should be em- 
ployed, as nitrifiers, in conjunction v^ith organic matters in 
the shape of green manures ; in that way obtaining, to the 
greatest extent possible, the beneficial efifects which follow 
the natural nitrification of the soil in hot climates. To this 
end, I have very earnestly recommended to farmers to adopt 
the cultivation of lucerne, sanfoin and red clover, and also 
the large-leafed, deep-rooted natural grasses. 

In the latter part of this work I have given details of 
various trials made by eminent agriculturists, for the double 
purpose of disseminating valuable information on practical 
questions interesting to all agriculturists, and also with a 
view of inciting American farmers to make experiments of 
a similar nature themselves. 



FRENCH KILOGRAMMES 



REDUCED TO UNITED STATES POUNDS. 



1 


0, 8. P. 


F. K. 


V. s. p. 


F. K. 


c. s. p. 


7. K. 


u. s. r. 


F. K. 


U. 3. P. 


2.21 


20 


44.20 


300 


663 


3000 


6630 


80000 


66300 


2 i 4.42 


30 


66.30 


400 


884 


4000 


8840 


40000 


88400 


S i 6.63 


40 


88.40 


500 


1105 


5000 


11050 


50000 


110500 


4 


8.84 


60 


110.50 


600 


1326 


6000 


13260 


60000 


132600 


5 


11.05 


60 


132.60 


700 


1547 


7000 


15470 


70000 


154700 


6 


13.26 


70 


154.70 


800 


1768 


8000 


176S0 


80000 ■ 


176800 


V 


15.47 


80 


176.80 


900 


1989 


9000 


19890 


90000 


198900 


8 


17.68 


90 


198.90 


1000 


2210 


10000 


22100 


100000 


221000 


9 


19.89 


100 


221.00 


1100 


2431 


11000 


24310 


110000 


243100 


10 


22.10 


110 


243.10 


1200 


2652 


12000 


26520 


120000 


265200 


11 


24.31 


120 


265 . 20 


1300 


2873 


13000 


28730 


130000 


287300 


12 


26.52 


130 


287.30 


1400 


3094 


14000 


30940 


140000 


309400 


13 


28.73 


140 


309.40 


1500 


3315 


15000 


33150 


150000 


3ol50() 


14 


30.94 


150 


331.50 


1600 


3536 


16000 


35360 


160000 


353600 


15 


33.15 


160 


353.60 


1700 


3757 


17000 


87570 


170000 


375700 


16 


85.36 


170 


375.70 


1800 


8978 


18000 


89780 


180000 


397800 


17- 


37.57 


180 


397.80 


1900 


4199 


19000 


41990 


190000 


419900 


18 


89.78 


190 


419.90 


2000 


4420 


20000 


44200 


200000 


442000 


19 


41.99 


200 


442.00 















HECTARE, EQUAL TO 2>^ ACRES; HECTOLITRE, EQUAL TO 2 84-100 BUSHELS. 



(88) 



RECAPITULATION. 



(1.) It is to-day an established fact that nitrogen, pot- 
ash, phosphor, and lime, are the four principal ingredients in 
vegetable life ; and farmers should therefore be induced, by 
all possible means, to produce, naturally and artificially, 
such articles themselves, so far as practicable. 

(2.) That, in Europe, the limestone rubbish of old build- 
ings was lixiviated for the nitrate of potash. 

(3.) That clay, holding from two to four per cent, of 
potash, was mixed with lime, animal and organic matters, 
as an artificial nitre bed, for the lixiviation of nitrates of 
potash. 

(4.) That a well-mixed compost heap is but an artificial 
nitre bed. 

(5.) That Professor Grandeau, of ]N"ancy, France, proved 
by dissolving, that soils rich in inorganic matters were not 
productive, except by copious manuring ; but that other 
soils not richer in inorganic matters, were productive with- 
out manuring ; the real cause of this being proved to be that 
tbe first mentioned soils holding no organic matter, their 
inorganic matters were in a state of insolubility, whereas 
the latter soil, holding a great quantity of organic matters, 
their inorganic matters were more or less soluble. 

(89) 



90 THE NEYf FARMER'S GUIDE. 

(6.) That Boussingault proved that permanently wet 
land cannot nitrify ; that dry air and a dry soil are very 
slow in coming under nitrifying conditions ; but that the 
best results of nitrification have been a moistening and 
drying process of the soil, and that he used only lime, magne- 
sia, and a little potash as a nitrifier in his nitrifying trials. 

(7.) That Jeaunel proved that soils containing humus 
and lime produce either nitric or nitrous acid, and that by 
the moistening and drying of the soil the most nitrates are 
formed. 

(8.) That E. Nicholls, as an analytical chemist in East 
India, shows how easily the nitrates are formed in the black, 
humic soil of that hot country ; also how the different 
kinds of acids act and react on each other as dissolvents ; 
thereby Mr. Mcholls shows the absence of nitrates of soda 
and potash, and that all nitrates at that place were deli- 
quescent nitrates of lime and magnesia, and very easily- 
lost by rain (see page 39). 

(9.) That in the analysis of Sprengel and Mulder, is it 
not clearly shown that the large amount of organic matter 
and acid carbonic produced the great amount of soluble 
inorcranic matter in the lower fertile soils ? 

(10.) That on the mediocre quality of soil on the conti- 
nent of Europe, where the three and four years' rotation 
plan is yet in operation, the fallow land- is all plowed in 
spring ; then the manure is spread broadcast over the soil, 
then turned by the plow and the harrow during the summer ; 
and so the farmers, witnessing the good effects of such a 
process, without understanding the dissolving and nitrifying 
chemical process of the soil. The proof that such soils have 
not deteriorated is, that potatoes are always planted the 
second year after the manuring, as a general rule ; and if the 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 91 

# 

average crop of an acre is under SOObnsliels of good, sound 
potatoes in a good soil, then that year is considered as a 
bad potato season. 

(11.) That, fifty or sixty years ago, on the continent of 
Europe, the black hutnus-holding soils, with impervious 
subsoils, were considered as of little value, as they pro- 
duced only a bad crop of oats ; but after a perfect super- 
ficial dra,inage, in plowing the laud in beds, vrith copious 
application of lime and manure, they were made to pro- 
duce the heaviest crops in such land. Therefore, the fact 
that nearly all the plowed land of the continent of Europe 
is superficially drained in beds, and also that only a small 
percentage of subsoil drainage is yet executed, proves the 
satisfactory effects of superficial drainage during centuries, 
and the advocates of superficial drainage claim : 

1st. That the work can be done by the farmer himself, 
without any expense ; 

2d. That it can be changed at any time ; 

8d. That the beds shed the rain water on both sides, 
without soaking the soil of the soluble matters, and 
particularly in mellow soils ; 

4th. That in all clay land, particularly if flat, the soils in 
beds are less tenacious and lose less of soluble mat- 
ters than flat plowed ; 

5th. The great cost of a subsoil drainage, and the loss if 
not well executed. 

(12.) That J. Yille ignored purposely the fermenting and 
the nitrifying quality of the stable manure in the soil, in 
recommending the use of chemical fertilizers exclusively, 
and the reduction and the fixation of the nitrogenized 
matters in his mixtures of the chemical manures (by the 



92 THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 

action of the sulphuric acid in the plaster) was clone under 
the pretence for the supposed greater solubility of the lime 
in the plaster ; but the sulphate of lime or plaster is not so 
valuable, on account of his 32 per cent, of lime, as for his 
46 per cent, of sulphuric acid, as a fixing medium of nitro- 
gen and ammonia, and it cannot be used too copiously by 
farmers in manures and in the stable to prevent any loss of 
ammonia. 

(13.) That the richest natural and artificial nitre beds 
are those holding the greatest amount of inorganic and 
organic matters in a decomposed state ; but that subsoils, 
rich in insoluble inorganic matters, were unproductive till 
a copious broadcast of stable manuring had taken place ; 
that in mixing clay, lime, organic or animal matters to- 
gether, inorganic matters get soluble, and nitrates are 
formed ; that in a compost lieap the same thing takes place, 
and therefore, in a well-manured and cultivated soil, of 
necessity the same takes place. 

In consideration of all this, is it a wonder that such a 
great quantity of American soil has been exhausted ? But 
a partially plowed, overcropped, and never manured soil 
may not, in my opinion, be exhausted, but is only starved 
out of its soluble inorganic matters, for the want of a dis- 
solving power being applied to it in time to prevent all 
this. Money and time expended upon such soil would 
have the effect of restoring it to its primitive fertility. 
Therefore, I advise that you do not compost your manure 
with soil, but compost all your plowed land with your 
manure — with green manure, and with lime — to convert it 
all into an '^artificial nitre bed," as Boussingault calls *it. 
As the natural production of your stable manure will not 
be sufficient, use fertilizers in the beginning, till you have 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE. 93 

doubled or trebled your crops, and you will thus show that 
farming pays, because the cost of producing a minimum 
crop is about the same as the cost of a maximum crop. 

Many people speak of inorganic matter, or of the great 
amount of nitrogen in the air, as if those ingredients could 
be eaten by the plants with spoons. Carbonate of lime 
and magnesia are not only valuable plant food, and, as de- 
composers of organic, and inorganic matter ; but they are 
as great nitrifiers as the alkalies, though their nitrates are of a 
more deliquescent nature. Neither lime nor alkalies should, 
however, be used in a caustic state to any manure or com- 
position of manures where actual ammt)nia or nitrates are 
present, because there would be loss of ammonia and nitro- 
gen ; and as for lime in the soil requiring a great deal of 
water and time for its dissolving action and reaction on the 
soil, the fact is that lime should never be applied imme- 
diately to plowed land, that has to be seeded immediately. 

It is only by closely studying nature's laws that any one 
can succeed in discovering their secrets. 

After great consideration of the controversy as to the 
proper estimated value of the different kinds of guano, as 
shown by various analyses, my conclusion is that the Peru- 
vian guano has proved always the best — it is the highest in 
value, especially if it be obtained from the first hands. For 
a reliable estimate of the value of Peruvian guano, the 
reader is referred to the analytical table of Count Yon 
Lippe-Wiehenfeld, given on page 61. 



. H. J. BAKER & BRO., 

H.J. BAKEK, ) 215 Pearl St., NEW YOMK, 

C. BAKER, Jr., V ^ 7 

F. WILEi'. IMPORTERS AND DEALEUS IN 

STRIOTX.Y FIRST Q,XJALirY 

FERTILIZERS. 

We Compound Special Fertilisers for Particular Grops^ 
GEORGE B. FORRESTER, Manager of this Department. 

ENGLISH SULPHATE OF ArvIMONIA, in casks. 

SUPER-PHOSPHATE OF LIME, high grade, in barrels. 

GERMAN POTASH SALTS, German test 35 per cent. Sulphate of 
Potash, in bags. 

40 per cent. ACTUAL POTASH, in casks or barrels. 

MURIATE OF POTASH, or CHLORIDE OF POTASSIUM, in bags, 
not below 80 per cent. 

NITRATE OF POTASH, in barrels, either Crude or Refined. 

STRICTLY PURE GROUND BONE, in barrels. (Purity guaranteed.) 

SULPHATE OF SODA, ground, in barrels. 

NITRATE OF SODA, in original bags, as imported. 

AGRICULTURAL SALT. 

SALT CAKE, in bulk. 

NITRE CAKE, in bulk. 

LAND PLASTER, in barrels. 

SULPHATE OF MAGNESIA. 

ORGANIC NITROGENOUS MATTER, 

PERUVIAN GUANO purchased on commission. 

POTATO FERTILISER, prepared expressly for the Potato Crop, 
under the formula of Geo. B. Forrester. This article is put 
up in barrels. 

COTTON FERTILIZER, in barrels, under formula of Geo. B. For- 
rester. 

WINTER WHEAT FERTILIZER, in barrels, under formula of Geo. 
B. Forrester. 

Our SPECIAL FERTILIZERS for particular crops have given excel- 
lent satisfaction. 

We sell only prime goods. 



H. J. BAKER & BRO., 2 I 5 Pearl St., NEW YORK. 



PURE BONE DUST, 

FOR FERTILIZING. 
For Sale by Peter Cooper's Glue Factory, 

No. 17 BUI\LING SLIP, 
New York City. 

W. M. HABIRSHAW, F. C. S., 

CHEMICAL ENGINEER 

AND 

ANALYTICAL CHEMIST, 

J^o. 86 J\rEW STREET, 

New York City. 



GENUINE 

PEETJYIAI &UA10. 



New York, SEPTjaMBER Ist, 1874. 

I have the pleasure to inform the agricultural commuuity that the special 
agency established for the sale of Genuine Peruvian Guano, in small or large 
lots, at the same price at which it may be sold by Messrs. Hobsox, Hurtaix) 
<fe Co., the sole agents of the Peruvian Government in this country, has met 
with great success so far. 

Verbal reports and numerous letters, received daily at this Agency, sub- 
ject to the perusal of those interested, express entire satisfaction with the 
Guano sold by me last spring. Farmers and country dealers are finding out 
that the Guano imported now is as good as it was until adulterated by un- 
scrupulous jobbers ia such a manner that many consumers were obliged to 
abandon its use. As, however, the knowledge of this Agency has spread, 
they are availing themselves of this opportunity to obtain again the genuine 
article. 

By instructions of the Peruvian Government, their Agents here have ad- 
vanced the price of Guanape Guano from this date to sixty-two dollars and 
fifty cents ($62 50), gold, per ton of 2240 lbs., gross, establishing at the same 
time a new scale of discounts, the lowest being of 50c. on parcels from 50 to 
100 tons, and the highest $4 00 on 500 tons and over. As usual, they will 
not sell in lots of less than ten tons. 

Under this new arrangement I am enabled to fill 
orders for lots of Ten Tons and upwards, at less price 
than the Agents of the Peruvian Government^ I will, 
as heretofore, supply quantities under Ten Tons at the 
same rate as cliarged by them. 

Full particulars given in circular mailed free on application. 

R. BALCAZAR, 

p o. Box 129 No. 53 Beaver St-i New York. 

REFERENCES BY PERMISSION 
Messrs. Hobson, Hurtado & Co., Financial Agents of the Peruvian Govern- 
ment, 52 Wall Street, New York. 
MosKS Taylor, Pres. National City Bank, 52 Wall Street, New York. 
J. C. Teact, Esq., Peruvian Consul, 264- Broadway, New York. ^ 



A BOOK OF INSTRUCTION FOR EVERY FARMER 
AND HORTICULTURIST. 



THE NEW FARMER'S GUIDE 



SHOWIKG BV 



EXPERIMENTS OF THE TRIAL FARMS IN EUROPE, 



THAT -WITn A JUDICIOUS APPLICATION OF 

CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS, 

THE YIELD OF THE PRINCIPAL AGRICULTURAL CROPS MAY 
BE DOUBLED OR TREBLED ; 

ALSO GIVING 

SIMPLE AND EASY METHODS 

FOR THE 

NITRIFICATION OF THE SOIL. 



MATHIAS SCHROEDER . 



NEW York: 

BAKER <t GODWIN, PRINTERS, 
No. 25 Pakk Row. 



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